Some famous people
This article is about the American president. Abraham Lincoln An 1863 daguerreotype of Lincoln, at the age of 54. 16th President of the United States In office
March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865 Vice President Hannibal Hamlin (1861–1865)
Andrew Johnson (1865) Preceded by James Buchanan Succeeded by Andrew Johnson Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Illinois's 7th district In office
March 4, 1847 – March 4, 1849 Preceded by John Henry Succeeded by Thomas Harris Member of the Illinois House of Representatives In office
December 1, 1834 – 1842 Personal details Born February 12, 1809
Hodgenville, Kentucky, U.S. Died April 15, 1865 (aged 56)
Petersen House,
Washington D.C., U.S. Resting place Lincoln's Tomb, Oak Ridge Cemetery
Springfield, Illinois, U.S. Nationality American Political party Whig (1834–1854)[1]
Republican (1854–1865)
National Union (1864–1865) Spouse(s) Mary Todd Children Robert Todd Lincoln
Edward Baker Lincoln
Willie Lincoln
Tad Lincoln Profession Lawyer
Politician Religion See: Abraham Lincoln and religion Signature Military service Service/branch Illinois Militia Years of service 3 months (April 21, 1832 - July 10, 1832) Rank Discharged from his command and re-enlisted as a Private.
Battles/wars Black Hawk War Abraham Lincoln i/ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən/ (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional and political crisis.[2][3] In so doing he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the national government and modernized the economy.
Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, Lincoln was a self-educated lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, state legislator during the 1830s, and a one-term member of the Congress during the 1840s. He promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, canals, railroads and tariffs to encourage the building of factories; he opposed the war with Mexico in 1846. After a series of highly publicized debates in 1858 during which he opposed the expansion of slavery, Lincoln lost the U.S. Senate race to his archrival, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln, a moderate from a swing state, secured the Republican Party presidential nomination in 1860. With almost no support in the South, Lincoln swept the North and was elected president in 1860. His election prompted seven southern slave states to form the Confederacy. No compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery.
When the North enthusiastically rallied behind the national flag after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, Lincoln concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war effort. His goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, arresting and temporarily detaining thousands of suspected secessionists in the border states without trial. Lincoln averted British intervention by defusing the Trent affair in late 1861. His numerous complex moves toward ending slavery centered on the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, using the Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraging the border states to outlaw slavery, and helping push through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which permanently outlawed slavery. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including commanding general Ulysses S. Grant. He made the major decisions on Union war strategy, Lincoln's Navy set up a naval blockade that shut down the South's normal trade, helped take control of Kentucky and Tennessee, and gained control of the Southern river system using gunboats. He tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. Each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another until finally Grant succeeded in 1865.
An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to "War Democrats" (who supported the North against the South), and managed his own re-election in the 1864 presidential election. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican party, confronted Radical Republicans who demanded harsher treatment of the South, War Democrats who called for more compromise, Copperheads who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists who plotted his death. Politically, Lincoln fought back with patronage, by pitting his opponents against each other, and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory.[4] His Gettysburg Address of 1863 became an iconic statement of America's dedication to the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln held a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. Six days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by a confederate sympathizer. Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars[5] and the public[6] as one of the greatest U.S. presidents. Family and childhood Early life Main article: Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Lincoln (née Hanks), in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County, Kentucky[7] (now LaRue County). He is descended from Samuel Lincoln, who arrived in Hingham, Massachusetts, from Norfolk, England, in the 17th century.[8] Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, Abraham, had moved his family from Virginia to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed in an Indian raid in 1786, as his children, including Lincoln's father Thomas, looked on.[9] Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier.[10] Lincoln's mother, Nancy, was the daughter of Lucy Hanks, and was born in what is now Mineral County, West Virginia, then part of Virginia. Lucy moved with Nancy to Kentucky. Nancy Hanks married Thomas, who became a respected citizen. He bought or leased several farms, including Knob Creek Farm. The family attended a Separate Baptists church, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.[11] Thomas enjoyed considerable status in Kentucky—where he sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. By the time his son Abraham was born, Thomas owned two 600-acre (240 ha) farms, several town lots, livestock, and horses. He was among the richest men in the county. However, in 1816, Thomas lost all of his land in court cases because of faulty property titles.[12]
The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago The family moved north across the Ohio River to free (i.e., non-slave) territory and made a new start in what was then Perry County but is now Spencer County, Indiana. Lincoln later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery" but mainly due to land title difficulties.[12] In Indiana, when Lincoln was nine, his mother Nancy died of milk sickness in 1818. After the death of Lincoln's mother, his older sister, Sarah, took charge of caring for him until their father remarried in 1819; Sarah later died in her 20s while giving birth to a stillborn son.[13]
Thomas Lincoln's new wife was the widow Sarah Bush Johnston, the mother of three children. Lincoln became very close to his stepmother, and referred to her as "Mother".[14] As a pre-teen, he did not like the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some in his family, and in the neighborhood, for a time considered him to be lazy.[15][16] As he grew into his teens, he willingly took responsibility for all chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household and became an adept axeman in his work building rail fences. He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match to which he was challenged by the renowned leader of a group of ruffians, "the Clary's Grove boys".[17] Lincoln also agreed with the customary obligation of a son to give his father all earnings from work done outside the home until age 21.[18] In later years, Lincoln occasionally loaned his father money.[19] Lincoln became increasingly distant from his father, in part because of his father's lack of education. While young Lincoln's formal education consisted approximately of a year's worth of classes from several itinerant teachers, he was mostly self-educated and was an avid reader and often sought access to any new books in the village. He read and reread the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and Franklin's Autobiography.[20][21]
In 1830, fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River, the Lincoln family moved west, where they settled on public land 10 miles west of Decatur, in Macon County, Illinois, another free, non-slave state.[22] In 1831, Thomas relocated the family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois. It was then that, as an ambitious 22-year-old who was now old enough to make his own decisions, Lincoln struck out on his own. Canoeing down the Sangamon River, Lincoln ended up in the village of New Salem in Sangamon County.[23] In the spring of 1831, hired by a New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—he walked back home.[24]
Marriage and children Further information: Lincoln family tree, Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln, and Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln 1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, Tad Mary Todd Lincoln, wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28 Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever.[25] In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.[26]
In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in Lexington, Kentucky.[27] They met in Springfield, Illinois, in December 1839[28] and were engaged the following December.[29] A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's initiative.[28][30] They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.[31] While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, "To hell, I suppose."[32]
In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.[33] Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie) in 1846. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children",[34] and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their children.[35] Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. "Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.[36] Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. His last descendant, grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985.[37]
The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.[38] Abraham Lincoln suffered from "melancholy," a condition which now is referred to as clinical depression.[39]
Lincoln's father-in-law was based in Lexington, Kentucky; he and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.[40] He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children.
Early career and militia service Further information: Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln and Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in New Salem, Illinois. Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the Illinois General Assembly. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural raconteur in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.[41]
Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War.[42] Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm),[43] he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him.[44] Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.[45]
Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody".[46] His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as a Whig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.[47] Admitted to the bar in 1836,[48] he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin.[49] Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844, when he began his practice with William Herndon, whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man".[50] He served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon County.[51]
In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not.[52] He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."[53] He closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of making the abolition of slavery practical by helping the freed slaves to settle in Liberia in Africa.[54]
Congressman Lincoln From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be, "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".[55] The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.[56]
In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line.[57] Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.[58] On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican–American War, which he attributed to President Polk's desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".[59] Lincoln also supported the Wilmot Proviso, which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.[60]
Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S.; Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil".[61][62] Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.[62] Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".[63][64][65] Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.[66]
Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election.[67] Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office, but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival, Justin Butterfield, considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an "old fossil".[68] The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.[69]
Prairie lawyer Lincoln in his late 30s – photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846 Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".[70] Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session.[71] Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.[72] In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.[73][74] In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.[75][76]
In 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route.[77][78] Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter in existence at the time of Barret's pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation.[77] Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor.[79] From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad.[80]
Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.[81] The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmers' Almanac showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.[81] Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.[81][82]
Republican politics 1854–60 Slavery and a "House Divided" Further information: Slave and free states and Abraham Lincoln and slavery By the 1850s, slavery was still legal in the southern United States, but had been generally outlawed in the northern states, such as Illinois.[83] Lincoln disapproved of slavery, and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west.[84] He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slavery Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854); this law repealed the slavery-restricting Missouri Compromise (1820). Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had incorporated popular sovereignty into the Act. Douglas' provision, which Lincoln opposed, specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory, rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress.[85] Eric Foner (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers, especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence.[86]
Portrait of Dred Scott. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery. On October 16, 1854, in his "Peoria Speech", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.[87] Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,[88] he said the Kansas Act had a "declared indifference, but as I must think, a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ..."[89]
In late 1854, Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate seat from Illinois. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.[90] After leading in the first six rounds of voting in the Illinois assembly, his support began to dwindle, and Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull, who defeated opponent Joel Aldrich Matteson.[91] The Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Lincoln wrote, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist, even though I do no more than oppose the extension of slavery."[92] Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted Free Soil, Liberty, and Democratic Party members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new Republican Party.[93] At the 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for vice president.[94]
In 1857–1858, Douglas broke with President James Buchanan, leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state.[95] In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no rights from the Constitution. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power.[96] Lincoln argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'."[97]
After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech, drawing on Mark 3:25: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."[98] The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North.[99] The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator.[100]
Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech Lincoln in 1858, the year of his debates with Stephen Douglas. The Senate campaign featured the seven Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858, the most famous political debates in American history.[101] The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "The Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal, while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.[102] The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the Dred Scott decision.[103]
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation.[104] In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the Illinois Staats-Anzeiger, a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.[105]
On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".[106] Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly[107]—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience."[108][109] Historian Donald described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (William H. Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Salmon P. Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery".[110] In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, "The taste is in my mouth a little."[111]
1860 Presidential nomination and campaign Main articles: Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln and United States presidential election, 1860 "The Rail Candidate"—Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right. On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.[112] Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.[113] Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".[114] On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.[115] On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.[116] Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me".[117]
Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the Dred Scott decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.[118] Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the Democratic convention, disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected John C. Breckinridge as their candidate.[119]
As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.[120] The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.[121]
Presidency Main article: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln 1860 election and secession Main articles: United States presidential election, 1860 and Baltimore Plot In 1860, northern and western electoral votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House. 1861 inaugural at Capitol. The rotunda still under construction On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.[122] Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2 percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln.[123] Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.[124] Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There were fusion tickets in which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.[125]
The first photographic image of the new president. As Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March.[126] On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.[127][128] Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America.[127] The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal.[129] President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.[130] The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.[131]
There were attempts at compromise. The Crittenden Compromise would have extended the Missouri Compromise line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party's free-soil platform.[132] Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."[133] Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.[134][135] A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.[136] Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.[137]
En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.[138] The president-elect then evaded possible assassins in Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, Allan Pinkerton. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.[139] Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states:
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."
--First inaugural address, 4 March 1861[140] The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."[141] The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.[142] As Lincoln explained when the war was ebding:
Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.[143] Beginning of the war Main articles: American Civil War and Battle of Fort Sumter Major Anderson, Ft. Sumter commander The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Major Robert Anderson, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter, forcing them to surrender, and began the war. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.[144] William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war.[145] Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that."[146]
On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of Richmond so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.[147]
Troops headed south towards Washington to protect the capital in response to Lincoln's call. On April 19, secessionist mobs in Baltimore that controlled the rail links attacked Union troops traveling to the capital. George William Brown, the Mayor of Baltimore, and other suspected Maryland politicians were arrested and imprisoned, without a warrant, as Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus.[148] John Merryman, a leader in the secessionist group in Maryland, petitioned Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of habeas corpus, saying holding Merryman without a hearing was unlawful. Taney issued the writ, thereby ordering Merryman's release, but Lincoln ignored it. Then and throughout the war, Lincoln came under heavy attack from antiwar Democrats, called Copperheads.[149]
Assuming command for the Union in the war After the fall of Fort Sumter, Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded as commander-in-chief, using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending habeas corpus, arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.[150]
"Running the 'Machine' ": An 1864 political cartoon takes a swing at Lincoln's administration—featuring William Fessenden, Edwin Stanton, William Seward, Gideon Welles, Lincoln and others. The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.[151] On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy[152]
In late August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of martial law in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court-martialed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont's emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal.[153] After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.[154]
The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the Trent, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln resolved the issue by releasing the two men and war was successfully averted with Britain.[155] Lincoln's foreign policy approach had been initially hands off, due to his inexperience; he left most diplomacy appointments and other foreign policy matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward's initial reaction to the Trent affair, however, was too bellicose, so Lincoln also turned to Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an expert in British diplomacy.[156]
To learn technical military terms, Lincoln borrowed and studied Henry Halleck's book, Elements of Military Art and Science from the Library of Congress.[157] Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the War Department in Washington, D.C. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary. Stanton was one of many conservative Democrats (he supported Breckenridge in the 1860 election) who became anti-slavery Republicans under Lincoln's leadership.[158] In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days.[159] Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.[160] Lincoln learned from his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a student of the European strategist Jomini, of the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River;[161] he also knew well the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.[162]
General McClellan After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and the retirement of the aged Winfield Scott in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief of all the Union armies.[163] McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt his Peninsula Campaign, longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.[164]
Lincoln and McClellan after the Battle of Antietam Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief and appointed Henry Wager Halleck in March 1862, after McClellan's "Harrison's Landing Letter", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.[165] McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope, a Republican, as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack. However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time.[166] The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the CSS Virginia, formerly the USS Merrimack, damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the USS Monitor. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the Battle of Hampton Roads.[167]
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.[168] Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862.[169] The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.[170] McClellan then resisted the President's demand that he pursue Lee's retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican Ambrose Burnside. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.[171]
Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, just prior to the battle of May 3, 1863 Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was stunningly defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.[172] Lincoln brought in Joseph Hooker, despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.[173]
The mid-term elections in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension of habeas corpus, the military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest. While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cincinnati Gazette contended that the voters were "depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress".[174]
In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included Hooker's attack on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans' on Chattanooga, Grant's on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.[175]
Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May,[176] but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln's order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in Harper's Ferry, and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by George Meade, who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the Gettysburg Campaign, which was a victory for the Union, though Lee's army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.[177] After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-Chief.[178]
Emancipation Proclamation Main articles: Abraham Lincoln and slavery and Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln presents the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet. Painted by Francis Bicknell Carpenter in 1864 Lincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by the Founding Fathers, under the constitution.[179] President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.[180]
On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July 1862, the Second Confiscation Act was passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress's power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that "as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free".[181]
Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly influential New York Tribune fell for the ploy,[182] and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. The President said the primary goal of his actions as president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his "official duty") was preserving the Union:[183]
My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[184]
The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states.[185] Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.[186]
Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."[187] For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.[188] A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at the War Governors' Conference; they supported the president's Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.[189]
Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Andrew Johnson, the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".[190] By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.[191] Frederick Douglass once observed of Lincoln: "In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color".[192]
Gettysburg Address Main article: Gettysburg Address The only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours before the speech. With the great Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite the New York City draft riots. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.[193] Defying Lincoln's prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here," the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.[194]
In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.[195][196]
General Grant President Lincoln (center right) with, from left, Generals Sherman and Grant and Admiral Porter – 1868 painting of events aboard the River Queen in March 1865 Meade's failure to capture Lee's army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. General Ulysses S. Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."[197] With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.[198]
Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant's political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant's promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.[199]
Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864. This is often characterized as a war of attrition, given high Union losses at battles such as the Battle of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had "almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces".[200] The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, to which the general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."[201]
The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee's army shrank with every costly battle. Grant's army moved south, crossed the James River, forcing a siege and trench warfare outside Petersburg, Virginia. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina.[202] Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.[203]
Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley. The damage caused by Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a 60-mile (97 km) swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies. As Neely (2004) concludes, there was no effort to engage in "total war" against civilians, as in World War II.[204]
Confederate general Jubal Anderson Early began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early's raid on Washington, D.C. in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"[205] After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.[206]
As Grant continued to wear down Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results.[207] On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee's forces in the Battle of Five Forks and nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but freedmen greeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox and the war was effectively over.[208]
1864 re-election Main articles: Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln and United States presidential election, 1864 While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing in War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.[209][210] At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party.[211]
When Grant's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President's re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:[212]
This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.[213]
Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.
An electoral landslide (in red) for Lincoln in the 1864 election, southern states (brown) and territories (light brown) not in play Lincoln's second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol building While the Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters;[214] the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads.[215] Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers' vote.[216]
On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll concludes it ranks "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world".[217] Lincoln said:
Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.[218]
Reconstruction Main article: Reconstruction Era Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."[219] In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade, political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.[220]
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended. As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals Andrew Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.[221]
Lincoln's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.[222]
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter".[223] By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification.[224][225] Upon ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865.[226]
As the war drew to a close, Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.[227]
Redefining the republic and republicanism Lincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death. The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.[228]
In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln's redefinition of republican values. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.[229] The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."[230] His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.[231] Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state.[232] Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.[233]
In March 1861, in his First Inaugural Address, Lincoln explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."[234]
Other enactments Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln only vetoed four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.[235] He signed the Homestead Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869.[236] The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.[237]
The Lincoln Cabinet[238] Office Name Term
President Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865 Vice President Hannibal Hamlin 1861–1865 Andrew Johnson 1865
Secretary of State William H. Seward 1861–1865
Secretary of Treasury Salmon P. Chase 1861–1864 William P. Fessenden 1864–1865 Hugh McCulloch 1865
Secretary of War Simon Cameron 1861–1862 Edwin M. Stanton 1862–1865
Attorney General Edward Bates 1861–1864 James Speed 1864–1865
Postmaster General Montgomery Blair 1861–1864 William Dennison, Jr. 1864–1865
Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles 1861–1865
Secretary of the Interior Caleb Blood Smith 1861–1862 John Palmer Usher 1863–1865 Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff, the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax.[239] This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($21,000 in current dollar terms), which was later changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure.[240]
Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Act provided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the Department of Agriculture.[241] In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).[242] President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.[243]
In the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.[244]
Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States.[245] Before Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.[245] In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park.[246]
Judicial appointments Main article: List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln Supreme Court appointments
Other judicial appointments Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, and 27 judges to the United States district courts. Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office.
States admitted to the Union West Virginia, admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West Virginia's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. Nevada, which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.[248]
Assassination Main articles: Assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.[249] In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy)[250] to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners.
Shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, and his assassin John Wilkes Booth. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.[251] Learning that the President, First Lady, and head Union general Ulysses S. Grant would be attending Ford's Theatre, Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson, Secretary of State William H. Seward and General Grant. Without his main bodyguard, Ward Hill Lamon, Lincoln left to attend the play Our American Cousin on April 14. Grant, along with his wife, chose at the last minute to travel to Philadelphia instead of attending the play.[252]
Lincoln's bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford's Theater during intermission to join Lincoln's coachman for drinks in the Star Saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13 pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln's head and fired at point-blank range, mortally wounding the President. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.[253][254]
After being on the run for 10 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia, some 70 miles (110 km) south of Washington, D.C. After a brief fight with Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26.[255]
An Army surgeon, Doctor Charles Leale, was sitting nearby at the theater and immediately assisted the President. He found the President unresponsive, barely breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, he made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to breathe more naturally.[256] The dying President was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Presbyterian minister Phineas Densmore Gurley, then present, was asked to offer a prayer, after which Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."[257]
Lincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00 am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death. The late President lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets were transported in the executive coach "United States" and for three weeks the Lincoln Special funeral train decorated in black bunting[258] bore Lincoln's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands, bonfires and hymn singing[259][260] or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by.
Religious and philosophical beliefs Further information: Abraham Lincoln and religion Lincoln, painting by George Peter Alexander Healy in 1869 As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic,[261] or, in the words of a biographer, even an iconoclast.[262] Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants.[263] He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife.[264] but he was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoted it and praised it.[265] He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.[266]
In the 1840s Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power.[267] In the 1850s, Lincoln acknowledged "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence.[268] When he suffered the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently acknowledged his own need to depend on God.[269] The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace.[270] After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."[271] On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land.[272]
Historical reputation See also: Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions In surveys of scholars ranking Presidents since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often #1.[5][6] A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.[273] Of all the presidential ranking polls conducted since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls: Schlesinger 1948, Schlesinger 1962, 1982 Murray Blessing Survey, Chicago Tribune 1982 poll, Schlesinger 1996, CSPAN 1996, Ridings-McIver 1996, Time 2008, and CSPAN 2009. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, occasionally are reversed.[274]
President Lincoln's assassination made him a national martyr and endowed him with a recognition of mythic proportion. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.[275]
The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum focuses on Lincoln scholarship and popular interpretation Schwartz argues that Lincoln's reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the Mall in Washington.[276] In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who doubtless would have supported the welfare state. In the Cold War years, Lincoln's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.[277]
By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives[278] for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.[279][280][281] As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroads in opposition to the agrarian Democrats.[282] William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism".[283] James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform". Randall concludes that, "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."[284]
By the late 1960s, liberals, such as historian Lerone Bennett, were having second thoughts, especially regarding Lincoln's views on racial issues.[285][286] Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968.[287] He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs, told jokes that ridiculed blacks, insisted he opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day;[288] and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.[289] The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation.[290][291] Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century.[292] On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason".[293]
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.[294][295]
Memorials Main articles: Memorials to Abraham Lincoln and Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill. His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,[296] including the capital of Nebraska.
The most famous and most visited memorials are the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.; Lincoln's sculpture on Mount Rushmore;[297] Ford's Theatre and Petersen House (where he died) in Washington and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, located in Springfield, Illinois, not far from Lincoln's home and his tomb.[298][299]
Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America's cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"[300] However, he also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness".[301] He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept
March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865 Vice President Hannibal Hamlin (1861–1865)
Andrew Johnson (1865) Preceded by James Buchanan Succeeded by Andrew Johnson Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Illinois's 7th district In office
March 4, 1847 – March 4, 1849 Preceded by John Henry Succeeded by Thomas Harris Member of the Illinois House of Representatives In office
December 1, 1834 – 1842 Personal details Born February 12, 1809
Hodgenville, Kentucky, U.S. Died April 15, 1865 (aged 56)
Petersen House,
Washington D.C., U.S. Resting place Lincoln's Tomb, Oak Ridge Cemetery
Springfield, Illinois, U.S. Nationality American Political party Whig (1834–1854)[1]
Republican (1854–1865)
National Union (1864–1865) Spouse(s) Mary Todd Children Robert Todd Lincoln
Edward Baker Lincoln
Willie Lincoln
Tad Lincoln Profession Lawyer
Politician Religion See: Abraham Lincoln and religion Signature Military service Service/branch Illinois Militia Years of service 3 months (April 21, 1832 - July 10, 1832) Rank Discharged from his command and re-enlisted as a Private.
Battles/wars Black Hawk War Abraham Lincoln i/ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən/ (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and its greatest moral, constitutional and political crisis.[2][3] In so doing he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the national government and modernized the economy.
Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, Lincoln was a self-educated lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, state legislator during the 1830s, and a one-term member of the Congress during the 1840s. He promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, canals, railroads and tariffs to encourage the building of factories; he opposed the war with Mexico in 1846. After a series of highly publicized debates in 1858 during which he opposed the expansion of slavery, Lincoln lost the U.S. Senate race to his archrival, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln, a moderate from a swing state, secured the Republican Party presidential nomination in 1860. With almost no support in the South, Lincoln swept the North and was elected president in 1860. His election prompted seven southern slave states to form the Confederacy. No compromise or reconciliation was found regarding slavery.
When the North enthusiastically rallied behind the national flag after the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter on April 12, 1861, Lincoln concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war effort. His goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, arresting and temporarily detaining thousands of suspected secessionists in the border states without trial. Lincoln averted British intervention by defusing the Trent affair in late 1861. His numerous complex moves toward ending slavery centered on the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, using the Army to protect escaped slaves, encouraging the border states to outlaw slavery, and helping push through Congress the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which permanently outlawed slavery. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including commanding general Ulysses S. Grant. He made the major decisions on Union war strategy, Lincoln's Navy set up a naval blockade that shut down the South's normal trade, helped take control of Kentucky and Tennessee, and gained control of the Southern river system using gunboats. He tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond. Each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another until finally Grant succeeded in 1865.
An exceptionally astute politician deeply involved with power issues in each state, Lincoln reached out to "War Democrats" (who supported the North against the South), and managed his own re-election in the 1864 presidential election. As the leader of the moderate faction of the Republican party, confronted Radical Republicans who demanded harsher treatment of the South, War Democrats who called for more compromise, Copperheads who despised him, and irreconcilable secessionists who plotted his death. Politically, Lincoln fought back with patronage, by pitting his opponents against each other, and by appealing to the American people with his powers of oratory.[4] His Gettysburg Address of 1863 became an iconic statement of America's dedication to the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln held a moderate view of Reconstruction, seeking to reunite the nation speedily through a policy of generous reconciliation in the face of lingering and bitter divisiveness. Six days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by a confederate sympathizer. Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars[5] and the public[6] as one of the greatest U.S. presidents. Family and childhood Early life Main article: Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln was born February 12, 1809, the second child of Thomas Lincoln and Nancy Lincoln (née Hanks), in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm in Hardin County, Kentucky[7] (now LaRue County). He is descended from Samuel Lincoln, who arrived in Hingham, Massachusetts, from Norfolk, England, in the 17th century.[8] Lincoln's paternal grandfather and namesake, Abraham, had moved his family from Virginia to Kentucky, where he was ambushed and killed in an Indian raid in 1786, as his children, including Lincoln's father Thomas, looked on.[9] Thomas was left to make his own way on the frontier.[10] Lincoln's mother, Nancy, was the daughter of Lucy Hanks, and was born in what is now Mineral County, West Virginia, then part of Virginia. Lucy moved with Nancy to Kentucky. Nancy Hanks married Thomas, who became a respected citizen. He bought or leased several farms, including Knob Creek Farm. The family attended a Separate Baptists church, which had restrictive moral standards and opposed alcohol, dancing, and slavery.[11] Thomas enjoyed considerable status in Kentucky—where he sat on juries, appraised estates, served on country slave patrols, and guarded prisoners. By the time his son Abraham was born, Thomas owned two 600-acre (240 ha) farms, several town lots, livestock, and horses. He was among the richest men in the county. However, in 1816, Thomas lost all of his land in court cases because of faulty property titles.[12]
The young Lincoln in sculpture at Senn Park, Chicago The family moved north across the Ohio River to free (i.e., non-slave) territory and made a new start in what was then Perry County but is now Spencer County, Indiana. Lincoln later noted that this move was "partly on account of slavery" but mainly due to land title difficulties.[12] In Indiana, when Lincoln was nine, his mother Nancy died of milk sickness in 1818. After the death of Lincoln's mother, his older sister, Sarah, took charge of caring for him until their father remarried in 1819; Sarah later died in her 20s while giving birth to a stillborn son.[13]
Thomas Lincoln's new wife was the widow Sarah Bush Johnston, the mother of three children. Lincoln became very close to his stepmother, and referred to her as "Mother".[14] As a pre-teen, he did not like the hard labor associated with frontier life. Some in his family, and in the neighborhood, for a time considered him to be lazy.[15][16] As he grew into his teens, he willingly took responsibility for all chores expected of him as one of the boys in the household and became an adept axeman in his work building rail fences. He attained a reputation for brawn and audacity after a very competitive wrestling match to which he was challenged by the renowned leader of a group of ruffians, "the Clary's Grove boys".[17] Lincoln also agreed with the customary obligation of a son to give his father all earnings from work done outside the home until age 21.[18] In later years, Lincoln occasionally loaned his father money.[19] Lincoln became increasingly distant from his father, in part because of his father's lack of education. While young Lincoln's formal education consisted approximately of a year's worth of classes from several itinerant teachers, he was mostly self-educated and was an avid reader and often sought access to any new books in the village. He read and reread the King James Bible, Aesop's Fables, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, Defoe's Robinson Crusoe, and Franklin's Autobiography.[20][21]
In 1830, fearing a milk sickness outbreak along the Ohio River, the Lincoln family moved west, where they settled on public land 10 miles west of Decatur, in Macon County, Illinois, another free, non-slave state.[22] In 1831, Thomas relocated the family to a new homestead in Coles County, Illinois. It was then that, as an ambitious 22-year-old who was now old enough to make his own decisions, Lincoln struck out on his own. Canoeing down the Sangamon River, Lincoln ended up in the village of New Salem in Sangamon County.[23] In the spring of 1831, hired by a New Salem businessman Denton Offutt and accompanied by friends, he took goods by flatboat from New Salem to New Orleans via the Sangamon, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers. After arriving in New Orleans—and witnessing slavery firsthand—he walked back home.[24]
Marriage and children Further information: Lincoln family tree, Medical and mental health of Abraham Lincoln, and Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln 1864 photo of President Lincoln with youngest son, Tad Mary Todd Lincoln, wife of Abraham Lincoln, age 28 Lincoln's first romantic interest was Ann Rutledge, whom he met when he first moved to New Salem; by 1835, they were in a relationship but not formally engaged. She died at the age of 22 on August 25, 1835, most likely of typhoid fever.[25] In the early 1830s, he met Mary Owens from Kentucky when she was visiting her sister. Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Mary if she returned to New Salem. Mary did return in November 1836, and Lincoln courted her for a time; however, they both had second thoughts about their relationship. On August 16, 1837, Lincoln wrote Mary a letter suggesting he would not blame her if she ended the relationship. She never replied and the courtship ended.[26]
In 1840, Lincoln became engaged to Mary Todd, who was from a wealthy slave-holding family in Lexington, Kentucky.[27] They met in Springfield, Illinois, in December 1839[28] and were engaged the following December.[29] A wedding set for January 1, 1841, was canceled when the two broke off their engagement at Lincoln's initiative.[28][30] They later met again at a party and married on November 4, 1842, in the Springfield mansion of Mary's married sister.[31] While preparing for the nuptials and feeling anxiety again, Lincoln, when asked where he was going, replied, "To hell, I suppose."[32]
In 1844, the couple bought a house in Springfield near Lincoln's law office. Mary Todd Lincoln kept house, often with the help of a relative or hired servant girl.[33] Robert Todd Lincoln was born in 1843 and Edward Baker Lincoln (Eddie) in 1846. Lincoln "was remarkably fond of children",[34] and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their children.[35] Edward died on February 1, 1850, in Springfield, probably of tuberculosis. "Willie" Lincoln was born on December 21, 1850, and died on February 20, 1862. The Lincolns' fourth son, Thomas "Tad" Lincoln, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of heart failure at the age of 18 on July 16, 1871.[36] Robert was the only child to live to adulthood and have children. His last descendant, grandson Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith, died in 1985.[37]
The deaths of their sons had profound effects on both parents. Later in life, Mary struggled with the stresses of losing her husband and sons, and Robert Lincoln committed her temporarily to a mental health asylum in 1875.[38] Abraham Lincoln suffered from "melancholy," a condition which now is referred to as clinical depression.[39]
Lincoln's father-in-law was based in Lexington, Kentucky; he and others of the Todd family were either slave owners or slave traders. Lincoln was close to the Todds, and he and his family occasionally visited the Todd estate in Lexington.[40] He was an affectionate, though often absent, husband and father of four children.
Early career and militia service Further information: Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln and Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War In 1832, at age 23, Lincoln and a partner bought a small general store on credit in New Salem, Illinois. Although the economy was booming in the region, the business struggled and Lincoln eventually sold his share. That March he began his political career with his first campaign for the Illinois General Assembly. He had attained local popularity and could draw crowds as a natural raconteur in New Salem, though he lacked an education, powerful friends, and money, which may be why he lost. He advocated navigational improvements on the Sangamon River.[41]
Before the election, Lincoln served as a captain in the Illinois Militia during the Black Hawk War.[42] Following his return, Lincoln continued his campaign for the August 6 election for the Illinois General Assembly. At 6 feet 4 inches (193 cm),[43] he was tall and "strong enough to intimidate any rival". At his first speech, when he saw a supporter in the crowd being attacked, Lincoln grabbed the assailant by his "neck and the seat of his trousers" and threw him.[44] Lincoln finished eighth out of 13 candidates (the top four were elected), though he received 277 of the 300 votes cast in the New Salem precinct.[45]
Lincoln served as New Salem's postmaster and later as county surveyor, all the while reading voraciously. He then decided to become a lawyer and began teaching himself law by reading Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England and other law books. Of his learning method, Lincoln stated: "I studied with nobody".[46] His second campaign in 1834 was successful. He won election to the state legislature; though he ran as a Whig, many Democrats favored him over a more powerful Whig opponent.[47] Admitted to the bar in 1836,[48] he moved to Springfield, Illinois, and began to practice law under John T. Stuart, Mary Todd's cousin.[49] Lincoln became an able and successful lawyer with a reputation as a formidable adversary during cross-examinations and closing arguments. He partnered with Stephen T. Logan from 1841 until 1844, when he began his practice with William Herndon, whom Lincoln thought "a studious young man".[50] He served four successive terms in the Illinois House of Representatives as a Whig representative from Sangamon County.[51]
In the 1835–36 legislative session, he voted to expand suffrage to white males, whether landowners or not.[52] He was known for his "free soil" stance of opposing both slavery and abolitionism. He first articulated this in 1837, saying, "[The] Institution of slavery is founded on both injustice and bad policy, but the promulgation of abolition doctrines tends rather to increase than abate its evils."[53] He closely followed Henry Clay in supporting the American Colonization Society program of making the abolition of slavery practical by helping the freed slaves to settle in Liberia in Africa.[54]
Congressman Lincoln From the early 1830s, Lincoln was a steadfast Whig and professed to friends in 1861 to be, "an old line Whig, a disciple of Henry Clay".[55] The party, including Lincoln, favored economic modernization in banking, protective tariffs to fund internal improvements including railroads, and espoused urbanization as well.[56]
In 1846, Lincoln was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where he served one two-year term. He was the only Whig in the Illinois delegation, but he showed his party loyalty by participating in almost all votes and making speeches that echoed the party line.[57] Lincoln, in collaboration with abolitionist Congressman Joshua R. Giddings, wrote a bill to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia with compensation for the owners, enforcement to capture fugitive slaves, and a popular vote on the matter. He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters.[58] On foreign and military policy, Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican–American War, which he attributed to President Polk's desire for "military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".[59] Lincoln also supported the Wilmot Proviso, which, if it had been adopted, would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.[60]
Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions. The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S.; Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had "invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil".[61][62] Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil.[62] Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it, the national papers ignored it, and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district. One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".[63][64][65] Lincoln later regretted some of his statements, especially his attack on the presidential war-making powers.[66]
Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency, Lincoln, who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House, supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election.[67] Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office, but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival, Justin Butterfield, considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer, but in Lincoln's view, an "old fossil".[68] The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory. This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold, and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.[69]
Prairie lawyer Lincoln in his late 30s – photo taken by one of Lincoln's law students around 1846 Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield, handling "every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".[70] Twice a year for 16 years, 10 weeks at a time, he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session.[71] Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges. As a riverboat man, Lincoln initially favored those interests, but ultimately represented whoever hired him.[72] In fact, he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.[73][74] In 1849, he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water. The idea was never commercialized, but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent.[75][76]
In 1851, he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders, James A. Barret, who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route.[77][78] Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter in existence at the time of Barret's pledge; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer, superior, and less expensive route, and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret's payment. The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation.[77] Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases, in 51 as sole counsel, of which 31 were decided in his favor.[79] From 1853 to 1860, another of Lincoln's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad.[80]
Lincoln's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William "Duff" Armstrong, who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.[81] The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a Farmers' Almanac showing the moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Based on this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.[81] Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom; but in an 1859 case, where he defended a cousin, Peachy Harrison, who was accused of stabbing another to death, Lincoln angrily protested the judge's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client. Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected, the judge, a Democrat, reversed his ruling, allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison.[81][82]
Republican politics 1854–60 Slavery and a "House Divided" Further information: Slave and free states and Abraham Lincoln and slavery By the 1850s, slavery was still legal in the southern United States, but had been generally outlawed in the northern states, such as Illinois.[83] Lincoln disapproved of slavery, and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west.[84] He returned to politics to oppose the pro-slavery Kansas–Nebraska Act (1854); this law repealed the slavery-restricting Missouri Compromise (1820). Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had incorporated popular sovereignty into the Act. Douglas' provision, which Lincoln opposed, specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory, rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress.[85] Eric Foner (2010) contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers, especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence.[86]
Portrait of Dred Scott. Lincoln denounced the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford as part of a conspiracy to extend slavery. On October 16, 1854, in his "Peoria Speech", Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery, which he repeated en route to the presidency.[87] Speaking in his Kentucky accent, with a very powerful voice,[88] he said the Kansas Act had a "declared indifference, but as I must think, a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery. I cannot but hate it. I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself. I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ..."[89]
In late 1854, Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate seat from Illinois. At that time, senators were elected by the state legislature.[90] After leading in the first six rounds of voting in the Illinois assembly, his support began to dwindle, and Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull, who defeated opponent Joel Aldrich Matteson.[91] The Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act. Lincoln wrote, "I think I am a Whig, but others say there are no Whigs, and that I am an abolitionist, even though I do no more than oppose the extension of slavery."[92] Drawing on remnants of the old Whig party, and on disenchanted Free Soil, Liberty, and Democratic Party members, he was instrumental in forging the shape of the new Republican Party.[93] At the 1856 Republican National Convention, Lincoln placed second in the contest to become the party's candidate for vice president.[94]
In 1857–1858, Douglas broke with President James Buchanan, leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858, since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution, which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state.[95] In March 1857, the Supreme Court issued its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney opined that blacks were not citizens, and derived no rights from the Constitution. Lincoln denounced the decision, alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power.[96] Lincoln argued, "The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended 'to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral developments, or social capacity', but they 'did consider all men created equal—equal in certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness'."[97]
After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech, drawing on Mark 3:25: "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved—I do not expect the house to fall—but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other."[98] The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate, and rallied Republicans across the North.[99] The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would, in turn, select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator.[100]
Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech Lincoln in 1858, the year of his debates with Stephen Douglas. The Senate campaign featured the seven Lincoln–Douglas debates of 1858, the most famous political debates in American history.[101] The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically. Lincoln warned that "The Slave Power" was threatening the values of republicanism, and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal, while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine, that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not, and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.[102] The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands. Lincoln stated Douglas' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states. Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the Dred Scott decision.[103]
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas to the Senate. Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln, his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation.[104] In May 1859, Lincoln purchased the Illinois Staats-Anzeiger, a German-language newspaper which was consistently supportive; most of the state's 130,000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German-language paper could mobilize.[105]
On February 27, 1860, New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans. Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery. Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery, and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".[106] Despite his inelegant appearance—many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly[107]—Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination. Journalist Noah Brooks reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience."[108][109] Historian Donald described the speech as a "superb political move for an unannounced candidate, to appear in one rival's (William H. Seward) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival's (Salmon P. Chase) loyalists, while not mentioning either by name during its delivery".[110] In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions, Lincoln said, "The taste is in my mouth a little."[111]
1860 Presidential nomination and campaign Main articles: Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln and United States presidential election, 1860 "The Rail Candidate"—Lincoln's 1860 candidacy is depicted as held up by the slavery issue—a slave on the left and party organization on the right. On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur.[112] Lincoln's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis, Norman Judd, Leonard Swett, and Jesse DuBois, and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency.[113] Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father (clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax), Lincoln's supporters adopted the label of "The Rail Candidate".[114] On May 18, at the Republican National Convention in Chicago, Lincoln's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot, beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase. A former Democrat, Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket. Lincoln's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue, and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff.[115] On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top. Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs.[116] Lincoln's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others, while following Lincoln's strong dictate to "Make no contracts that bind me".[117]
Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party, as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the Dred Scott decision and the presidency of James Buchanan. Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.[118] Meanwhile, Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats. Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the Democratic convention, disagreeing with Douglas' position on popular sovereignty, and ultimately selected John C. Breckinridge as their candidate.[119]
As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns, Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches. Instead, he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North, and produced an abundance of campaign posters, leaflets, and newspaper editorials. There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform, and second on Lincoln's life story, emphasizing his childhood poverty. The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of "free labor", whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts.[120] The Republican Party's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln's life, and sold 100,000 to 200,000 copies.[121]
Presidency Main article: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln 1860 election and secession Main articles: United States presidential election, 1860 and Baltimore Plot In 1860, northern and western electoral votes (shown in red) put Lincoln into the White House. 1861 inaugural at Capitol. The rotunda still under construction On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States, beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas, John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats, and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party. He was the first president from the Republican Party. His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states, and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states.[122] Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, Douglas 1,376,957 votes, Breckinridge 849,781 votes, and Bell 588,789 votes. Turnout was 82.2 percent, with Lincoln winning the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon. Douglas won Missouri, and split New Jersey with Lincoln.[123] Bell won Virginia, Tennessee, and Kentucky, and Breckinridge won the rest of the South.[124] Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote, his victory in the electoral college was decisive: Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123. There were fusion tickets in which all of Lincoln's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York, New Jersey, and Rhode Island, but even if the anti-Lincoln vote had been combined in every state, Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College.[125]
The first photographic image of the new president. As Lincoln's election became evident, secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March.[126] On December 20, 1860, South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed.[127][128] Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the Confederate States of America.[127] The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to, but initially rejected, the secessionist appeal.[129] President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.[130] The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9, 1861.[131]
There were attempts at compromise. The Crittenden Compromise would have extended the Missouri Compromise line of 1820, dividing the territories into slave and free, contrary to the Republican Party's free-soil platform.[132] Lincoln rejected the idea, saying, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right."[133] Lincoln, however, did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Constitution, which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states. That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent.[134][135] A few weeks before the war, Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution.[136] Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution.[137]
En route to his inauguration by train, Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North.[138] The president-elect then evaded possible assassins in Baltimore, who were uncovered by Lincoln's head of security, Allan Pinkerton. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in disguise in Washington, D.C., which was placed under substantial military guard.[139] Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no intention, or inclination, to abolish slavery in the Southern states:
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."
--First inaugural address, 4 March 1861[140] The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends. We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battlefield, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone, all over this broad land, will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched, as surely they will be, by the better angels of our nature."[141] The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible. By March 1861, no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. Meanwhile, Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated.[142] As Lincoln explained when the war was ebding:
Both parties deprecated war, but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive, and the other would accept war rather than let it perish, and the war came.[143] Beginning of the war Main articles: American Civil War and Battle of Fort Sumter Major Anderson, Ft. Sumter commander The commander of Fort Sumter, South Carolina, Major Robert Anderson, sent a request for provisions to Washington, and the execution of Lincoln's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war. On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter, forcing them to surrender, and began the war. Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations: underestimating the gravity of the crisis, exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South, and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion.[144] William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was "sadly disappointed" at his failure to realize that "the country was sleeping on a volcano" and that the South was preparing for war.[145] Donald concludes that, "His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft. Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he also vowed not to surrender the forts. The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot; they did just that."[146]
On April 15, Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect Washington, and "preserve the Union", which, in his view, still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. This call forced the states to choose sides. Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital, despite the exposed position of Richmond so close to Union lines. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months. Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland, but did not prevail; Kentucky tried to be neutral.[147]
Troops headed south towards Washington to protect the capital in response to Lincoln's call. On April 19, secessionist mobs in Baltimore that controlled the rail links attacked Union troops traveling to the capital. George William Brown, the Mayor of Baltimore, and other suspected Maryland politicians were arrested and imprisoned, without a warrant, as Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus.[148] John Merryman, a leader in the secessionist group in Maryland, petitioned Chief Justice Roger B. Taney to issue a writ of habeas corpus, saying holding Merryman without a hearing was unlawful. Taney issued the writ, thereby ordering Merryman's release, but Lincoln ignored it. Then and throughout the war, Lincoln came under heavy attack from antiwar Democrats, called Copperheads.[149]
Assuming command for the Union in the war After the fall of Fort Sumter, Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion. Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis, and he responded as commander-in-chief, using unprecedented powers. He expanded his war powers, and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, and after suspending habeas corpus, arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions. In addition, Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict.[150]
"Running the 'Machine' ": An 1864 political cartoon takes a swing at Lincoln's administration—featuring William Fessenden, Edwin Stanton, William Seward, Gideon Welles, Lincoln and others. The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln, and dominated his time and attention. From the start, it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort, and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle, such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army. Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue. Conversely, the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery.[151] On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort. In practice the law had little effect, but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy[152]
In late August 1861, General John C. Frémont, the 1856 Republican presidential nominee, issued, without consulting his superiors in Washington, a proclamation of martial law in Missouri. He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court-martialed and shot, and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed. Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption. Lincoln overruled Frémont's proclamation. Lincoln believed that Fremont's emancipation was political; neither militarily necessary nor legal.[153] After Lincoln acted, Union enlistments from Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri increased by over 40,000 troops.[154]
The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain. The U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British merchant ship, the Trent, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered. Lincoln resolved the issue by releasing the two men and war was successfully averted with Britain.[155] Lincoln's foreign policy approach had been initially hands off, due to his inexperience; he left most diplomacy appointments and other foreign policy matters to his Secretary of State, William Seward. Seward's initial reaction to the Trent affair, however, was too bellicose, so Lincoln also turned to Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and an expert in British diplomacy.[156]
To learn technical military terms, Lincoln borrowed and studied Henry Halleck's book, Elements of Military Art and Science from the Library of Congress.[157] Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the War Department in Washington, D.C. He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort, consulted with governors, and selected generals based on their past success (as well as their state and party). In January 1862, after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary. Stanton was one of many conservative Democrats (he supported Breckenridge in the 1860 election) who became anti-slavery Republicans under Lincoln's leadership.[158] In terms of war strategy, Lincoln articulated two priorities: to ensure that Washington was well-defended, and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt, decisive victory; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days.[159] Twice a week, Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon, and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard.[160] Lincoln learned from his chief of staff General Henry Halleck, a student of the European strategist Jomini, of the critical need to control strategic points, such as the Mississippi River;[161] he also knew well the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing territory.[162]
General McClellan After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and the retirement of the aged Winfield Scott in late 1861, Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general-in-chief of all the Union armies.[163] McClellan, a young West Point graduate, railroad executive, and Pennsylvania Democrat, took several months to plan and attempt his Peninsula Campaign, longer than Lincoln wanted. The campaign's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital. McClellan's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress, as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops in defense of the capital; McClellan, who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops, blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign.[164]
Lincoln and McClellan after the Battle of Antietam Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief and appointed Henry Wager Halleck in March 1862, after McClellan's "Harrison's Landing Letter", in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort.[165] McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope, a Republican, as head of the new Army of Virginia. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north, thus protecting the capital from attack. However, lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan, now commanding the Army of the Potomac, Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time.[166] The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the CSS Virginia, formerly the USS Merrimack, damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk, Virginia, before being engaged and damaged by the USS Monitor. Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the Battle of Hampton Roads.[167]
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln was desperate, and restored him to command of all forces around Washington, to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward.[168] Two days after McClellan's return to command, General Robert E. Lee's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland, leading to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862.[169] The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history, but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January. Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier, Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation.[170] McClellan then resisted the President's demand that he pursue Lee's retreating and exposed army, while his counterpart General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. As a result, Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans; and, after the 1862 midterm elections, he replaced McClellan with Republican Ambrose Burnside. Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander-in-Chief.[171]
Union soldiers before Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, just prior to the battle of May 3, 1863 Burnside, against the advice of the president, prematurely launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was stunningly defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December. Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield, but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined. Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg.[172] Lincoln brought in Joseph Hooker, despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship.[173]
The mid-term elections in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war, as well as rising inflation, new high taxes, rumors of corruption, the suspension of habeas corpus, the military draft law, and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market. The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest, but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest. While Republicans were discouraged, Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and New York. The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states, except New York. The Cincinnati Gazette contended that the voters were "depressed by the interminable nature of this war, as so far conducted, and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress".[174]
In the spring of 1863, Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together; these plans included Hooker's attack on Lee north of Richmond, Rosecrans' on Chattanooga, Grant's on Vicksburg, and a naval assault on Charleston.[175]
Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May,[176] but continued to command his troops for some weeks. He ignored Lincoln's order to divide his troops, and possibly force Lee to do the same in Harper's Ferry, and tendered his resignation, which Lincoln accepted. He was replaced by George Meade, who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the Gettysburg Campaign, which was a victory for the Union, though Lee's army avoided capture. At the same time, after initial setbacks, Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor.[177] After the Battle of Gettysburg, Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general-in-chief on to his generals, who resented his civilian interference with their own plans. Even so, he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander-in-Chief.[178]
Emancipation Proclamation Main articles: Abraham Lincoln and slavery and Emancipation Proclamation Lincoln presents the first draft of the Emancipation Proclamation to his cabinet. Painted by Francis Bicknell Carpenter in 1864 Lincoln understood that the Federal government's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution, which before 1865, committed the issue to individual states. He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory. At the beginning of the war, he also sought to persuade the states to accept compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery. Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it, as envisioned by the Founding Fathers, under the constitution.[179] President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General David Hunter in May 1862, on the grounds that it was not within their power, and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union.[180]
On June 19, 1862, endorsed by Lincoln, Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory. In July 1862, the Second Confiscation Act was passed, which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion. Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress's power to free the slaves within the states, he approved the bill in deference to the legislature. He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander-in-Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution, and Lincoln was planning to take that action. In that month, Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet. In it, he stated that "as a fit and necessary military measure, on January 1, 1863, all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward, and forever, be free".[181]
Privately, Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated. However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification. Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly influential New York Tribune fell for the ploy,[182] and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22, 1862. The President said the primary goal of his actions as president (he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his "official duty") was preserving the Union:[183]
My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... [¶] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[184]
The Emancipation Proclamation, issued on September 22, 1862, and put into effect on January 1, 1863, declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control, with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states.[185] Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation, while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off-year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites.[186]
Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective, as Union armies advanced south, more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed. Lincoln's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."[187] For some time, Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves. He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.[188] A few days after Emancipation was announced, 13 Republican governors met at the War Governors' Conference; they supported the president's Proclamation, but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army.[189]
Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation. By the spring of 1863, Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers. In a letter to Andrew Johnson, the military governor of Tennessee, encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of 50,000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".[190] By the end of 1863, at Lincoln's direction, General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley.[191] Frederick Douglass once observed of Lincoln: "In his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color".[192]
Gettysburg Address Main article: Gettysburg Address The only confirmed photo of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, some three hours before the speech. With the great Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863, and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall, Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort, despite the New York City draft riots. The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19, 1863.[193] Defying Lincoln's prediction that "the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here," the Address became the most quoted speech in American history.[194]
In 272 words, and three minutes, Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789, but in 1776, "conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal". He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all. The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort. He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain, that slavery would end as a result of the losses, and the future of democracy in the world would be assured, that "government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth". Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective: a new birth of freedom in the nation.[195][196]
General Grant President Lincoln (center right) with, from left, Generals Sherman and Grant and Admiral Porter – 1868 painting of events aboard the River Queen in March 1865 Meade's failure to capture Lee's army as it retreated from Gettysburg, and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac, persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed. General Ulysses S. Grant's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln had said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."[197] With Grant in command, Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters, and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops.[198]
Nevertheless, Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864, as McClellan was. Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant's political intentions, and being assured that he had none, submitted to the Senate Grant's promotion to commander of the Union Army. He obtained Congress's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General, which no officer had held since George Washington.[199]
Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864. This is often characterized as a war of attrition, given high Union losses at battles such as the Battle of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor. Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive, the Confederate forces had "almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces".[200] The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North; Grant had lost a third of his army, and Lincoln asked what Grant's plans were, to which the general replied, "I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer."[201]
The Confederacy lacked reinforcements, so Lee's army shrank with every costly battle. Grant's army moved south, crossed the James River, forcing a siege and trench warfare outside Petersburg, Virginia. Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant's headquarters at City Point, Virginia. This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities, as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina.[202] Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North, and replaced the Union losses.[203]
Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure—such as plantations, railroads, and bridges—hoping to destroy the South's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting. Grant's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South. This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley. The damage caused by Sherman's March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a 60-mile (97 km) swath, but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal, but rather defeat of the Confederate armies. As Neely (2004) concludes, there was no effort to engage in "total war" against civilians, as in World War II.[204]
Confederate general Jubal Anderson Early began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital. During Early's raid on Washington, D.C. in 1864, Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position; Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes shouted at him, "Get down, you damn fool, before you get shot!"[205] After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington, Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched.[206]
As Grant continued to wear down Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln, Seward, and others at Hampton Roads. Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results.[207] On April 1, 1865, Grant successfully outflanked Lee's forces in the Battle of Five Forks and nearly encircled Petersburg, and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond. Days later, when that city fell, Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital; as he walked through the city, white Southerners were stone-faced, but freedmen greeted him as a hero. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox and the war was effectively over.[208]
1864 re-election Main articles: Electoral history of Abraham Lincoln and United States presidential election, 1864 While the war was still being waged, Lincoln faced reelection in 1864. Lincoln was a master politician, bringing together—and holding together—all the main factions of the Republican Party, and bringing in War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson as well. Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers—greatly expanded over peacetime—to hold the factions of his party together, build support for his own policies, and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket.[209][210] At its 1864 convention, the Republican Party selected Johnson, a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee, as his running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party.[211]
When Grant's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted, the lack of military success wore heavily on the President's re-election prospects, and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated. Sharing this fear, Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that, if he should lose the election, he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House:[212]
This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward.[213]
Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet, but asked them to sign the sealed envelope.
An electoral landslide (in red) for Lincoln in the 1864 election, southern states (brown) and territories (light brown) not in play Lincoln's second inaugural address in 1865 at the almost completed Capitol building While the Democratic platform followed the "Peace wing" of the party and called the war a "failure", their candidate, General George B. McClellan, supported the war and repudiated the platform. Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort. Sherman's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut's capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters;[214] the Democratic Party was deeply split, with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln. By contrast, the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue, and state Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads.[215] Lincoln was re-elected in a landslide, carrying all but three states, and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers' vote.[216]
On March 4, 1865, Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address. In it, he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God's will. Historian Mark Noll concludes it ranks "among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world".[217] Lincoln said:
Fondly do we hope—fervently do we pray—that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said 3,000 years ago, so still it must be said, "the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether". With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.[218]
Reconstruction Main article: Reconstruction Era Reconstruction began during the war, as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states, and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. Shortly after Lee's surrender, a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated, and Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy."[219] In keeping with that sentiment, Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy, and was opposed by the Radical Republicans, under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens, Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade, political allies of the president on other issues. Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war. His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office, had not mistreated Union prisoners, and would sign an oath of allegiance.[220]
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln, 1865, entitled "The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union." The caption reads (Johnson): Take it quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few more stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended. As Southern states were subdued, critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re-formed. Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas, where Lincoln appointed Generals Andrew Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors, respectively. In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it. Lincoln's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. On the other hand, the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient, and passed their own plan, the Wade-Davis Bill, in 1864. When Lincoln vetoed the bill, the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.[221]
Lincoln's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness. To fill Chief Justice Taney's seat on the Supreme Court, he named the choice of the Radicals, Salmon P. Chase, who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies.[222]
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, which did not apply to every state, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment. Lincoln declared that such an amendment would "clinch the whole matter".[223] By December 1863, a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage. This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass, falling short of the required two-thirds majority on June 15, 1864, in the House of Representatives. Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican/Unionist platform in the election of 1864. After a long debate in the House, a second attempt passed Congress on January 31, 1865, and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification.[224][225] Upon ratification, it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6, 1865.[226]
As the war drew to a close, Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen. He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner's Freedmen's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves. The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen. Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction. Shortly before his assassination, Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction. Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short-term military control over southern states, until readmission under the control of southern Unionists.[227]
Redefining the republic and republicanism Lincoln in February 1865, about two months before his death. The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country. The term "the United States" has historically been used, sometimes in the plural ("these United States"), and other times in the singular, without any particular grammatical consistency. The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century.[228]
In recent years, historians such as Harry Jaffa, Herman Belz, John Diggins, Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln's redefinition of republican values. As early as the 1850s, a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution, Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values—what he called the "sheet anchor" of republicanism.[229] The Declaration's emphasis on freedom and equality for all, in contrast to the Constitution's tolerance of slavery, shifted the debate. As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860, "Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself."[230] His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism, rather than its legalisms.[231] Nevertheless, in 1861, Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms (the Constitution was a contract, and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree), and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state.[232] Burton (2008) argues that Lincoln's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated.[233]
In March 1861, in his First Inaugural Address, Lincoln explored the nature of democracy. He denounced secession as anarchy, and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system. He said "A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."[234]
Other enactments Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency, which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them. Lincoln only vetoed four bills passed by Congress; the only important one was the Wade-Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction.[235] He signed the Homestead Act in 1862, making millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost. The Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act, also signed in 1862, provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States' First Transcontinental Railroad, which was completed in 1869.[236] The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s.[237]
The Lincoln Cabinet[238] Office Name Term
President Abraham Lincoln 1861–1865 Vice President Hannibal Hamlin 1861–1865 Andrew Johnson 1865
Secretary of State William H. Seward 1861–1865
Secretary of Treasury Salmon P. Chase 1861–1864 William P. Fessenden 1864–1865 Hugh McCulloch 1865
Secretary of War Simon Cameron 1861–1862 Edwin M. Stanton 1862–1865
Attorney General Edward Bates 1861–1864 James Speed 1864–1865
Postmaster General Montgomery Blair 1861–1864 William Dennison, Jr. 1864–1865
Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles 1861–1865
Secretary of the Interior Caleb Blood Smith 1861–1862 John Palmer Usher 1863–1865 Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government: tariffs (a policy with long precedent), and a new Federal income tax. In 1861, Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff, the first having become law under James Buchanan. Also in 1861, Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861, creating the first U.S. income tax.[239] This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $800 ($21,000 in current dollar terms), which was later changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure.[240]
Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government's economic influence in several other areas. The creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Act provided a strong financial network in the country. It also established a national currency. In 1862, Congress created, with Lincoln's approval, the Department of Agriculture.[241] In 1862, Lincoln sent a senior general, John Pope, to put down the "Sioux Uprising" in Minnesota. Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers, Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants, eventually approving 39 for execution (one was later reprieved).[242] President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy.[243]
In the wake of Grant's casualties in his campaign against Lee, Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft, but it was never issued. In response to rumors of one, however, the editors of the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market. Lincoln's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior; he ordered the military to seize the two papers. The seizure lasted for two days.[244]
Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States.[245] Before Lincoln's presidency, Thanksgiving, while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century, had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates. The last such proclamation had been during James Madison's presidency 50 years before. In 1863, Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving.[245] In June 1864, Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park.[246]
Judicial appointments Main article: List of federal judges appointed by Abraham Lincoln Supreme Court appointments
- Noah Haynes Swayne – 1862
- Samuel Freeman Miller – 1862
- David Davis – 1862
- Stephen Johnson Field – 1863
- Salmon Portland Chase – 1864 (Chief Justice)
Other judicial appointments Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges, including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States, and 27 judges to the United States district courts. Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office.
States admitted to the Union West Virginia, admitted to the Union June 20, 1863, contained the former north-westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union. As a condition for its admission, West Virginia's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery. Nevada, which became the third State in the far-west of the continent, was admitted as a free state on October 31, 1864.[248]
Assassination Main articles: Assassination of Abraham Lincoln and Funeral and burial of Abraham Lincoln John Wilkes Booth was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; though he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts with the Confederate secret service.[249] In 1864, Booth formulated a plan (very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy)[250] to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners.
Shown in the presidential booth of Ford's Theatre, from left to right, are Henry Rathbone, Clara Harris, Mary Todd Lincoln, Abraham Lincoln, and his assassin John Wilkes Booth. After attending an April 11, 1865, speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks, an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president.[251] Learning that the President, First Lady, and head Union general Ulysses S. Grant would be attending Ford's Theatre, Booth formulated a plan with co-conspirators to assassinate Vice President Andrew Johnson, Secretary of State William H. Seward and General Grant. Without his main bodyguard, Ward Hill Lamon, Lincoln left to attend the play Our American Cousin on April 14. Grant, along with his wife, chose at the last minute to travel to Philadelphia instead of attending the play.[252]
Lincoln's bodyguard, John Parker, left Ford's Theater during intermission to join Lincoln's coachman for drinks in the Star Saloon next door. The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony. Seizing the opportunity, Booth crept up from behind and at about 10:13 pm, aimed at the back of Lincoln's head and fired at point-blank range, mortally wounding the President. Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.[253][254]
After being on the run for 10 days, Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia, some 70 miles (110 km) south of Washington, D.C. After a brief fight with Union troops, Booth was killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26.[255]
An Army surgeon, Doctor Charles Leale, was sitting nearby at the theater and immediately assisted the President. He found the President unresponsive, barely breathing and with no detectable pulse. Having determined that the President had been shot in the head, and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought, he made an attempt to clear the blood clot, after which the President began to breathe more naturally.[256] The dying President was taken across the street to Petersen House. After remaining in a coma for nine hours, Lincoln died at 7:22 am on April 15. Presbyterian minister Phineas Densmore Gurley, then present, was asked to offer a prayer, after which Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said, "Now he belongs to the ages."[257]
Lincoln's flag-enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers, while the city's church bells rang. President Johnson was sworn in at 10:00 am, less than 3 hours after Lincoln's death. The late President lay in state in the East Room, and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21. For his final journey with his son Willie, both caskets were transported in the executive coach "United States" and for three weeks the Lincoln Special funeral train decorated in black bunting[258] bore Lincoln's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois stopping at many cities across the North for large-scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands, as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands, bonfires and hymn singing[259][260] or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by.
Religious and philosophical beliefs Further information: Abraham Lincoln and religion Lincoln, painting by George Peter Alexander Healy in 1869 As a young man, Lincoln was a religious skeptic,[261] or, in the words of a biographer, even an iconoclast.[262] Later in life, Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences, who were mostly evangelical Protestants.[263] He never joined a church, although he frequently attended with his wife.[264] but he was deeply familiar with the Bible, quoted it and praised it.[265] He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others. Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs. However he did believe in an all-powerful God that shaped events and, by 1865, was expressing those beliefs in major speeches.[266]
In the 1840s Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity, a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power.[267] In the 1850s, Lincoln acknowledged "providence" in a general way, and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence.[268] When he suffered the death of his son Edward, Lincoln more frequently acknowledged his own need to depend on God.[269] The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace.[270] After Willie's death, Lincoln considered why, from a divine standpoint, the severity of the war was necessary. He wrote at this time that God "could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest. Yet the contest began. And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day. Yet the contest proceeds."[271] On the day Lincoln was assassinated, he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land.[272]
Historical reputation See also: Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions In surveys of scholars ranking Presidents since the 1940s, Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three, often #1.[5][6] A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.[273] Of all the presidential ranking polls conducted since 1948, Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls: Schlesinger 1948, Schlesinger 1962, 1982 Murray Blessing Survey, Chicago Tribune 1982 poll, Schlesinger 1996, CSPAN 1996, Ridings-McIver 1996, Time 2008, and CSPAN 2009. Generally, the top three presidents are rated as 1. Lincoln; 2. George Washington; and 3. Franklin D. Roosevelt, although Lincoln and Washington, and Washington and Roosevelt, occasionally are reversed.[274]
President Lincoln's assassination made him a national martyr and endowed him with a recognition of mythic proportion. Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty. Republicans linked Lincoln's name to their party. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability.[275]
The Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum focuses on Lincoln scholarship and popular interpretation Schwartz argues that Lincoln's reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the Progressive Era (1900–1920s) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history, with even white Southerners in agreement. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the Mall in Washington.[276] In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self-made man or the great war president, but as the advocate of the common man who doubtless would have supported the welfare state. In the Cold War years, Lincoln's image shifted to emphasize the symbol of freedom who brought hope to those oppressed by communist regimes.[277]
By the 1970s Lincoln had become a hero to political conservatives[278] for his intense nationalism, support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of human bondage, his acting in terms of Lockean and Burkean principles on behalf of both liberty and tradition, and his devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.[279][280][281] As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, internal improvements, and railroads in opposition to the agrarian Democrats.[282] William C. Harris found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions undergirded and strengthened his conservatism".[283] James G. Randall emphasizes his tolerance and especially his moderation "in his preference for orderly progress, his distrust of dangerous agitation, and his reluctance toward ill digested schemes of reform". Randall concludes that, "he was conservative in his complete avoidance of that type of so-called 'radicalism' which involved abuse of the South, hatred for the slaveholder, thirst for vengeance, partisan plotting, and ungenerous demands that Southern institutions be transformed overnight by outsiders."[284]
By the late 1960s, liberals, such as historian Lerone Bennett, were having second thoughts, especially regarding Lincoln's views on racial issues.[285][286] Bennett won wide attention when he called Lincoln a white supremacist in 1968.[287] He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs, told jokes that ridiculed blacks, insisted he opposed social equality, and proposed sending freed slaves to another country. Defenders, such as authors Dirck and Cashin, retorted that he was not as bad as most politicians of his day;[288] and that he was a "moral visionary" who deftly advanced the abolitionist cause, as fast as politically possible.[289] The emphasis shifted away from Lincoln-the-emancipator to an argument that blacks had freed themselves from slavery, or at least were responsible for pressuring the government on emancipation.[290][291] Historian Barry Schwartz wrote in 2009 that Lincoln's image suffered "erosion, fading prestige, benign ridicule" in the late 20th century.[292] On the other hand, Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was distinctly endowed with the personality trait of negative capability, defined by the poet John Keats and attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "content in the midst of uncertainties and doubts, and not compelled toward fact or reason".[293]
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light.[294][295]
Memorials Main articles: Memorials to Abraham Lincoln and Abraham Lincoln cultural depictions Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of United States currency, the penny and the $5 bill. His likeness also appears on many postage stamps and has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names,[296] including the capital of Nebraska.
The most famous and most visited memorials are the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C.; Lincoln's sculpture on Mount Rushmore;[297] Ford's Theatre and Petersen House (where he died) in Washington and the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, located in Springfield, Illinois, not far from Lincoln's home and his tomb.[298][299]
Barry Schwartz, a sociologist who has examined America's cultural memory, argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, the memory of Abraham Lincoln was practically sacred and provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life". During the Great Depression, he argues, Lincoln served "as a means for seeing the world's disappointments, for making its sufferings not so much explicable as meaningful". Franklin D. Roosevelt, preparing America for war, used the words of the Civil War president to clarify the threat posed by Germany and Japan. Americans asked, "What would Lincoln do?"[300] However, he also finds that since World War II, Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness".[301] He suggested that postmodernism and multiculturalism have diluted greatness as a concept
Marilyn Monroe Biography Marilyn Monroe (1926-1962) Model, actress, singer and arguably one of the most famous women of the twentieth century.
“I am good, but not an angel. I do sin, but I am not the devil. I am just a small girl in a big world trying to find someone to love.”
— Marilyn Monroe
Monroe was born, Norma Jeane Mortenson, in June 1926. Her father was unknown and she was baptized as Norma Jeane Baker; she spent many years in foster homes because of her family situation.
Monroe married Jimmy Dougherty, in 1942. When he left to the South Pacific to fight in the Second world War, she joined a local munitions factory in Burbank, California. It was here that Marilyn got her first big break. Photographer David Conover, was covering the munitions factory to show women at work. He was struck by the beauty and photogenic nature of Norma, and he used her in many of her shots. This enabled her to start a career as a model and she was soon featured on the front of many magazine covers.
1946 was a pivotal year for Marilyn, she divorced her young husband and changed her name from the boring Norma Baker to the more glamorous Marilyn Monroe (after her grandma). She took drama lessons and got her first movie contract with Twentieth Century Fox. Her first few films were low key, but, it gained her more prominent roles in films such as All About Eve, Niagara and later Gentleman Prefer Blondes and How To Marry A Millionaire.
By now these film roles had thrust her into the global limelight. She was an iconic figure of Hollywood glamour and fashion. She was an epitome of sensuality, beauty and effervescence and was naturally photogenic.
In 1954, she married baseball star Joe DiMaggio, a friend of over 2 years. They were later to divorce, but they remained close friends.
She tried to move beyond the 'blonde bombshell' typecasting and set up her own movie production. She was awarded a golden globe award for her role in 'Some Like It Hot'
Tragically, she died early from an overdose of barbiturates in 1962 aged just 36.
“I am good, but not an angel. I do sin, but I am not the devil. I am just a small girl in a big world trying to find someone to love.”
— Marilyn Monroe
Monroe was born, Norma Jeane Mortenson, in June 1926. Her father was unknown and she was baptized as Norma Jeane Baker; she spent many years in foster homes because of her family situation.
Monroe married Jimmy Dougherty, in 1942. When he left to the South Pacific to fight in the Second world War, she joined a local munitions factory in Burbank, California. It was here that Marilyn got her first big break. Photographer David Conover, was covering the munitions factory to show women at work. He was struck by the beauty and photogenic nature of Norma, and he used her in many of her shots. This enabled her to start a career as a model and she was soon featured on the front of many magazine covers.
1946 was a pivotal year for Marilyn, she divorced her young husband and changed her name from the boring Norma Baker to the more glamorous Marilyn Monroe (after her grandma). She took drama lessons and got her first movie contract with Twentieth Century Fox. Her first few films were low key, but, it gained her more prominent roles in films such as All About Eve, Niagara and later Gentleman Prefer Blondes and How To Marry A Millionaire.
By now these film roles had thrust her into the global limelight. She was an iconic figure of Hollywood glamour and fashion. She was an epitome of sensuality, beauty and effervescence and was naturally photogenic.
In 1954, she married baseball star Joe DiMaggio, a friend of over 2 years. They were later to divorce, but they remained close friends.
She tried to move beyond the 'blonde bombshell' typecasting and set up her own movie production. She was awarded a golden globe award for her role in 'Some Like It Hot'
Tragically, she died early from an overdose of barbiturates in 1962 aged just 36.
Biography Mother Teresa Mother Teresa (1910-1997) was a Roman Catholic nun, who devoted her life to serving the poor and destitute aroune the world. She spent many years in Calcutta, India where shed founded the Missionaries of Charity, a religious congregation devoted to helping those in great need. In 1979, Mother Teresa was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize and has become a symbol of charitable selfless work. She was beatified in 2003, the first step on the path to sainthood, within the Catholic church.
"It is not how much we do, but how much love we put in the doing. It is not how much we give, but how much love we put in the giving."
- Mother Teresa
Short Biography Mother Teresa Mother Teresa was born, 1910, in Skopje, capital of the Republic of Macedonia. Little is known about her early life, but at a young age she felt a calling to be a nun and serve through helping the poor. At the age of 18 she was given permission to join a group of nuns in Ireland. After a few months of training, with the Sisters of Loreto, she was then given permission to travel to India. She took her formal religious vows in 1931, and chose to be named after St Therese of Lisieux - the patron saint of missionaries.
On her arrival in India, she began by working as a teacher, however the widespread poverty of Calcutta made a deep impression on her; and this led to her starting a new order called “The Missionaries of Charity”. The primary objective of this mission was to look after people, who nobody else was prepared to look after. Mother Teresa felt that serving others was a key principle of the teachings of Jesus Christ. She often mentioned the saying of Jesus,
"Whatever you do to the least of my brethren, you do it to me."
As Mother Teresa said herself:
"Love cannot remain by itself -- it has no meaning. Love has to be put into action, and that action is service ." - Mother Teresa
She experienced two particularly traumatic periods in Calcutta. The first was the Bengal famine of 1943 and the second was the Hindu/Muslim violence in 1946 - before the partition of India. In 1948, she left the convent to live full time amongst the poorest of Calcutta. She chose to wear a white Indian Sari, with blue trimmings - out of respect for the traditional Indian dress. For many years, Mother Teresa and a small band of fellow nuns survived on minimal income and food, often having to beg for funds. But, slowly her efforts with the poorest were noted and appreciated by the local community and Indian politicians.
In 1952, she opened her first home for the dying, which allowed people to die with dignity. Mother Teresa often spent time with those who were dying. Some have criticised the lack of proper medical attention, and refusal to give painkillers. But, others say that it afforded many neglected people the opportunity to die knowing someone cared.
Over time the work grew. Missions were started overseas, and by 2013, there are 700 missions operating in over 130 countries. The scope of their work also expanded to include orphanages, and hospices for those with terminal illness.
“Not all of us can do great things. But we can do small things with great love.”
— Mother Teresa
Mother Teresa never sought to convert those of an another faith. Those in her dying homes were given the religious rites appropriate to their faith. However, she had a very firm Catholic faith and took a strict line on abortion, the death penalty and divorce - even if her position was unpopular. Her whole life was influenced by her faith and religion, even though at times she confessed she didn't feel the presence of God.
The Missionaries of Charity now has branches throughout the world including branches in the developed world where they work with the homeless and people affected with AIDS. In 1965, the Society became an International Religious Family by a decree of Pope Paul VI.
In the 1960s, the life of Mother Teresa was first brought to a wider public attention by Malcolm Muggeridge who wrote a book and produced a documentary called “Something Beautiful for God”.
In 1979, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress, which also constitutes a threat to peace." She didn't attend the ceremonial banquet, but asked that the $192,000 fund be given to the poor.
In later years, she was more active in western developed countries. She commented that though the west was materially prosperous, there was often a spiritual poverty.
“The hunger for love is much more difficult to remove than the hunger for bread.” — Mother Teresa
When she was asked how to promote world peace, she replied.
"Go home and love your family"
Over the last two decades of her life, Mother Teresa suffered various health problems but nothing could dissuade her from fulfilling her mission of serving the poor and needy. Until her very last illness she was active in travelling around the world to the different branches of "The Missionaries of Charity" During her last few years, she met Princess Diana in the Bronx, New York. The two died within a week of each other.
Following Mother Teresa’s death the Vatican began the process of beatification, which is the second step on the way to canonisation and sainthood. Mother Teresa was formally beatified in October 2003 by Pope John Paul II and is now known as Blessed Teresa of Calcutta.
Mother Teresa was a living saint who offered a great example and inspiration to the world.
Citation : Pettinger, Tejvan. "Biography of Mother Teresa", Oxford, www.biographyonline.net, 18th May. 2006
Awards Mother Teresa
"It is not how much we do, but how much love we put in the doing. It is not how much we give, but how much love we put in the giving."
- Mother Teresa
Short Biography Mother Teresa Mother Teresa was born, 1910, in Skopje, capital of the Republic of Macedonia. Little is known about her early life, but at a young age she felt a calling to be a nun and serve through helping the poor. At the age of 18 she was given permission to join a group of nuns in Ireland. After a few months of training, with the Sisters of Loreto, she was then given permission to travel to India. She took her formal religious vows in 1931, and chose to be named after St Therese of Lisieux - the patron saint of missionaries.
On her arrival in India, she began by working as a teacher, however the widespread poverty of Calcutta made a deep impression on her; and this led to her starting a new order called “The Missionaries of Charity”. The primary objective of this mission was to look after people, who nobody else was prepared to look after. Mother Teresa felt that serving others was a key principle of the teachings of Jesus Christ. She often mentioned the saying of Jesus,
"Whatever you do to the least of my brethren, you do it to me."
As Mother Teresa said herself:
"Love cannot remain by itself -- it has no meaning. Love has to be put into action, and that action is service ." - Mother Teresa
She experienced two particularly traumatic periods in Calcutta. The first was the Bengal famine of 1943 and the second was the Hindu/Muslim violence in 1946 - before the partition of India. In 1948, she left the convent to live full time amongst the poorest of Calcutta. She chose to wear a white Indian Sari, with blue trimmings - out of respect for the traditional Indian dress. For many years, Mother Teresa and a small band of fellow nuns survived on minimal income and food, often having to beg for funds. But, slowly her efforts with the poorest were noted and appreciated by the local community and Indian politicians.
In 1952, she opened her first home for the dying, which allowed people to die with dignity. Mother Teresa often spent time with those who were dying. Some have criticised the lack of proper medical attention, and refusal to give painkillers. But, others say that it afforded many neglected people the opportunity to die knowing someone cared.
Over time the work grew. Missions were started overseas, and by 2013, there are 700 missions operating in over 130 countries. The scope of their work also expanded to include orphanages, and hospices for those with terminal illness.
“Not all of us can do great things. But we can do small things with great love.”
— Mother Teresa
Mother Teresa never sought to convert those of an another faith. Those in her dying homes were given the religious rites appropriate to their faith. However, she had a very firm Catholic faith and took a strict line on abortion, the death penalty and divorce - even if her position was unpopular. Her whole life was influenced by her faith and religion, even though at times she confessed she didn't feel the presence of God.
The Missionaries of Charity now has branches throughout the world including branches in the developed world where they work with the homeless and people affected with AIDS. In 1965, the Society became an International Religious Family by a decree of Pope Paul VI.
In the 1960s, the life of Mother Teresa was first brought to a wider public attention by Malcolm Muggeridge who wrote a book and produced a documentary called “Something Beautiful for God”.
In 1979, she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for work undertaken in the struggle to overcome poverty and distress, which also constitutes a threat to peace." She didn't attend the ceremonial banquet, but asked that the $192,000 fund be given to the poor.
In later years, she was more active in western developed countries. She commented that though the west was materially prosperous, there was often a spiritual poverty.
“The hunger for love is much more difficult to remove than the hunger for bread.” — Mother Teresa
When she was asked how to promote world peace, she replied.
"Go home and love your family"
Over the last two decades of her life, Mother Teresa suffered various health problems but nothing could dissuade her from fulfilling her mission of serving the poor and needy. Until her very last illness she was active in travelling around the world to the different branches of "The Missionaries of Charity" During her last few years, she met Princess Diana in the Bronx, New York. The two died within a week of each other.
Following Mother Teresa’s death the Vatican began the process of beatification, which is the second step on the way to canonisation and sainthood. Mother Teresa was formally beatified in October 2003 by Pope John Paul II and is now known as Blessed Teresa of Calcutta.
Mother Teresa was a living saint who offered a great example and inspiration to the world.
Citation : Pettinger, Tejvan. "Biography of Mother Teresa", Oxford, www.biographyonline.net, 18th May. 2006
Awards Mother Teresa
- The first Pope John XXIII Peace Prize. (1971)
- Kennedy Prize (1971)
- The Nehru Prize –“for promotion of international peace and understanding”(1972)
- Albert Schweitzer International Prize (1975),
- The Nobel Peace Prize (1979)
- States Presidential Medal of Freedom (1985)
- Congressional Gold Medal (1994)
- Honorary citizenship of the United States (November 16, 1996),
John F Kennedy Biography
"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your
country."
John F Kennedy
John
F Kennedy was America's second youngest elected president. He oversaw one of the
most crucial moments in the Cold War (Cuban Missile Crisis) and sought to
affirm America's beliefs in basic human rights by calling for civil rights
legislation and an attack on poverty and degradation. Assassinated in November
22, 1923, his tragic death shocked America and the world.
Born in May 1917, John F. Kennedy came from an illustrious political family;
his father Joseph Kennedy was a leading member of the Democrat party and Joseph
encouraged John F. Kennedy in his political ambitions after the war.
John graduated from Harvard after completing a thesis on "Appeasement in
Munich" His thesis was later converted into a successful book - Why England
Slept.
Before America joined the war, John joined the navy and saw action throughout
the Pacific theatre. In August 1943, his boat was rammed by a Japanese destroyer
'Amagiri'. John F Kennedy was later decorated for his outstanding bravery in
rescuing a fellow crewman; he was also awarded the Purple heart for later
action. Later he was modest about his actions, saying he felt a bit embarrassed
as it resulted from a botched military action.
In 1946, he won a seat in Boston for the US House of Representatives, and in
1952 got himself elected for the US Senate, defeating the incumbent
Republican.
In 1953, he married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. In 1957 he was awarded
the Pulitzer prize for biography for his book 'Profiles in Courage' a
book about US Senators who stood up for their personal beliefs.
In 1956, he was nearly chosen to be the Vice Presidential candidate for Adlai
Stevenson. The national exposure raised his profile, and in 1960 he was chosen
to be the Democratic nomination for the Presidency.
In 1960, in a very tight election, John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated the much
fancied Republican, Richard Nixon. It was a memorable election with many
millions glued to the tv in the pre-election hustings. John F Kennedy came
across very well on TV and looked more relaxed and professional on camera.
It was the first time a Roman Catholic had been elected president and it was
a big issue in America where many Protestants distrusted the prospect of America
being influenced by the Vatican. He had to assure voters he was not a Catholic
candidate for presidency, but someone standing for President who happened to be
a Catholic.
During his inauguration, JFK, gave a very memorable speech, where he famously
encouraged citizens to help the nation become strong again.
"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your
country."
He also called for greater internationalism.
"We will make clear that America's enduring concern is for both peace and
freedom; that we are anxious to live in harmony with the Russian people; that we
seek no conquests, no satellites, no riches; that we seek only the day when
'nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any
more.' "
In 1961, Kennedy ordered the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. It was mostly led
by Cuban exiles with minimal US support. However, the invasion was a failure
leading to embarrassing negotiations with Fidel Castro's Cuba.
In 1962, the world came extraordinarily close to nuclear war during the Cuban
Missile Crisis. The Soviet Union moved missiles to Cuba. Many in the American
military were keen on an air strike on the missile bases. But, Kennedy chose a
more cautious diplomatic approach. He found a way to offer Khrushchev a way out
without losing face, whilst making sure the missiles were removed from Cuba.
During his brief presidency, John F Kennedy oversaw an escalation of US
involvement in Vietnam, which included sending 16,000 military advisers to the
country. Later, Kennedy's secretary of defense Robert McNamara said Kennedy was
considering pulling out of Vietnam in 1963 and believes that if Kennedy had
survived, American involvement would have ended. Tapes showed that Lyndon Johnson later criticised Kennedy's opinion
that America should withdraw.
Ich Bin Ein Berliner.
In June 1963, Kennedy made a memorable speech in West Berlin. He criticised
the Soviets for their divisive wall. He stated:
"Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have
never had to put a wall up to keep our people in."
John F Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963. Lee Harvey Oswald was
arrested and put on trial for his murder. However, before he could reach trial,
Lee Harvey Oswald was himself murdered by Jack Ruby. Lee Harvey Oswald always
pleaded innocence and many believe the assassination was a conspiracy.
"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your
country."
John F Kennedy
John
F Kennedy was America's second youngest elected president. He oversaw one of the
most crucial moments in the Cold War (Cuban Missile Crisis) and sought to
affirm America's beliefs in basic human rights by calling for civil rights
legislation and an attack on poverty and degradation. Assassinated in November
22, 1923, his tragic death shocked America and the world.
Born in May 1917, John F. Kennedy came from an illustrious political family;
his father Joseph Kennedy was a leading member of the Democrat party and Joseph
encouraged John F. Kennedy in his political ambitions after the war.
John graduated from Harvard after completing a thesis on "Appeasement in
Munich" His thesis was later converted into a successful book - Why England
Slept.
Before America joined the war, John joined the navy and saw action throughout
the Pacific theatre. In August 1943, his boat was rammed by a Japanese destroyer
'Amagiri'. John F Kennedy was later decorated for his outstanding bravery in
rescuing a fellow crewman; he was also awarded the Purple heart for later
action. Later he was modest about his actions, saying he felt a bit embarrassed
as it resulted from a botched military action.
In 1946, he won a seat in Boston for the US House of Representatives, and in
1952 got himself elected for the US Senate, defeating the incumbent
Republican.
In 1953, he married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. In 1957 he was awarded
the Pulitzer prize for biography for his book 'Profiles in Courage' a
book about US Senators who stood up for their personal beliefs.
In 1956, he was nearly chosen to be the Vice Presidential candidate for Adlai
Stevenson. The national exposure raised his profile, and in 1960 he was chosen
to be the Democratic nomination for the Presidency.
In 1960, in a very tight election, John F. Kennedy narrowly defeated the much
fancied Republican, Richard Nixon. It was a memorable election with many
millions glued to the tv in the pre-election hustings. John F Kennedy came
across very well on TV and looked more relaxed and professional on camera.
It was the first time a Roman Catholic had been elected president and it was
a big issue in America where many Protestants distrusted the prospect of America
being influenced by the Vatican. He had to assure voters he was not a Catholic
candidate for presidency, but someone standing for President who happened to be
a Catholic.
During his inauguration, JFK, gave a very memorable speech, where he famously
encouraged citizens to help the nation become strong again.
"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your
country."
He also called for greater internationalism.
"We will make clear that America's enduring concern is for both peace and
freedom; that we are anxious to live in harmony with the Russian people; that we
seek no conquests, no satellites, no riches; that we seek only the day when
'nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war any
more.' "
In 1961, Kennedy ordered the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. It was mostly led
by Cuban exiles with minimal US support. However, the invasion was a failure
leading to embarrassing negotiations with Fidel Castro's Cuba.
In 1962, the world came extraordinarily close to nuclear war during the Cuban
Missile Crisis. The Soviet Union moved missiles to Cuba. Many in the American
military were keen on an air strike on the missile bases. But, Kennedy chose a
more cautious diplomatic approach. He found a way to offer Khrushchev a way out
without losing face, whilst making sure the missiles were removed from Cuba.
During his brief presidency, John F Kennedy oversaw an escalation of US
involvement in Vietnam, which included sending 16,000 military advisers to the
country. Later, Kennedy's secretary of defense Robert McNamara said Kennedy was
considering pulling out of Vietnam in 1963 and believes that if Kennedy had
survived, American involvement would have ended. Tapes showed that Lyndon Johnson later criticised Kennedy's opinion
that America should withdraw.
Ich Bin Ein Berliner.
In June 1963, Kennedy made a memorable speech in West Berlin. He criticised
the Soviets for their divisive wall. He stated:
"Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have
never had to put a wall up to keep our people in."
John F Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963. Lee Harvey Oswald was
arrested and put on trial for his murder. However, before he could reach trial,
Lee Harvey Oswald was himself murdered by Jack Ruby. Lee Harvey Oswald always
pleaded innocence and many believe the assassination was a conspiracy.
Martin Luther King Biography "I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: "We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal." I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners will be able to sit down together at a table of brotherhood"
- Martin Luther King
Short Biography of Martin Luther King Martin Luther King Jr was one of America's most influential civil rights activists. His passionate, but non violent protests, helped to raise awareness of racial inequalities in America, leading to significant political change. Martin Luther King was also an eloquent orator who captured the imagination and hearts of people, both black and white.
Early Life of Martin Luther King Martin Luther King, Jr. was born in Atlanta on 15 January 1929. Both his father and grandfather were pastors in an African-American Baptist church. M. Luther King attended Morehouse College in Atlanta, (segregated schooling) and then went to study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania and Boston University. During his time at University Martin Luther King became aware of the vast inequality and injustice faced by black Americans; in particular he was influenced by Gandhi's philosophy of non-violent protest. The philosophy of Gandhi tied in with the teachings of his Baptist faith. At the age of 24, King married Coretta Scott, a beautiful and talented young woman. After getting married, King became a priest at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama.
Montgomery Bus Boycott A turning point in the life of Martin Luther King was the Montgomery Bus Boycott which he helped to promote. His boycott also became a turning point in the civil rights struggle - attracting national press for the cause.
It began in innocuous circumstances on 5 December 1955. Rosa Parks, a civil rights activist, refused to given up her seat - she was sitting in a white only area. This broke the strict segregation of coloured and white people on the Montgomery buses. The bus company refused to back down and so Martin Luther King helped to organise a strike where coloured people refused to use any of the city buses. The boycott lasted for several months, the issue was then brought to the Supreme Court who declared the segregation was unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Movement.
After the success of the Montgomery bus boycott, King and other ministers founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). This proved to be a nucleus for the growing civil rights movement. Later there would be arguments about the best approach to take. In particular the 1960s saw the rise of the Black power movement, epitomised by Malcolm X and other black nationalist groups. However, King always remained committed to the ideals of non violent struggle.
Martin Luther King and Malcolm X briefly meet in 1964 before going to listen to a Senate debate about civil rights in Washington. (image Wikicommons)
Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr Martin Luther King was an inspirational and influential speaker; he had the capacity to move and uplift his audiences. In particular he could offer a vision of hope. He captured the injustice of the time but also felt that this injustice was like a passing cloud. King frequently made references to God, the Bible and his Christian Faith.
"And this is what Jesus means when he said: "How is it that you can see the mote in your brother's eye and not see the beam in your own eye?" Or to put it in Moffatt's translation: "How is it that you see the splinter in your brother's eye and fail to see the plank in your own eye?" And this is one of the tragedies of human nature. So we begin to love our enemies and love those persons that hate us whether in collective life or individual life by looking at ourselves."
- Martin Luther King
His speeches were largely free of revenge, instead focusing on the need to move forward. He was named as Man of the Year by Time magazine in 1963, it followed his famous and iconic "I have a Dream Speech" - delivered in Washington during a civil rights march.
The following year, Martin Luther King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work towards social justice. King announced he would turn over the prize money $54,123 to the civil rights movement. With the prestige of the Nobel prize King was increasingly consulted by politicians such as Lyndon Johnson.
However, King's opposition to the Vietnam War did not endear him to the Johnson administration; King also began receiving increased scrutiny from the authorities, such as the FBI.
On April 4th 1968, King was assassinated. It was one day after he had delivered his final speech "I've Been to the Mountaintop"
In his honor America have instigated a national Martin Luther King Day. He remains symbolic of America's fight for justice and racial equality
- Martin Luther King
Short Biography of Martin Luther King Martin Luther King Jr was one of America's most influential civil rights activists. His passionate, but non violent protests, helped to raise awareness of racial inequalities in America, leading to significant political change. Martin Luther King was also an eloquent orator who captured the imagination and hearts of people, both black and white.
Early Life of Martin Luther King Martin Luther King, Jr. was born in Atlanta on 15 January 1929. Both his father and grandfather were pastors in an African-American Baptist church. M. Luther King attended Morehouse College in Atlanta, (segregated schooling) and then went to study at Crozer Theological Seminary in Pennsylvania and Boston University. During his time at University Martin Luther King became aware of the vast inequality and injustice faced by black Americans; in particular he was influenced by Gandhi's philosophy of non-violent protest. The philosophy of Gandhi tied in with the teachings of his Baptist faith. At the age of 24, King married Coretta Scott, a beautiful and talented young woman. After getting married, King became a priest at Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Montgomery, Alabama.
Montgomery Bus Boycott A turning point in the life of Martin Luther King was the Montgomery Bus Boycott which he helped to promote. His boycott also became a turning point in the civil rights struggle - attracting national press for the cause.
It began in innocuous circumstances on 5 December 1955. Rosa Parks, a civil rights activist, refused to given up her seat - she was sitting in a white only area. This broke the strict segregation of coloured and white people on the Montgomery buses. The bus company refused to back down and so Martin Luther King helped to organise a strike where coloured people refused to use any of the city buses. The boycott lasted for several months, the issue was then brought to the Supreme Court who declared the segregation was unconstitutional.
Civil Rights Movement.
After the success of the Montgomery bus boycott, King and other ministers founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). This proved to be a nucleus for the growing civil rights movement. Later there would be arguments about the best approach to take. In particular the 1960s saw the rise of the Black power movement, epitomised by Malcolm X and other black nationalist groups. However, King always remained committed to the ideals of non violent struggle.
Martin Luther King and Malcolm X briefly meet in 1964 before going to listen to a Senate debate about civil rights in Washington. (image Wikicommons)
Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr Martin Luther King was an inspirational and influential speaker; he had the capacity to move and uplift his audiences. In particular he could offer a vision of hope. He captured the injustice of the time but also felt that this injustice was like a passing cloud. King frequently made references to God, the Bible and his Christian Faith.
"And this is what Jesus means when he said: "How is it that you can see the mote in your brother's eye and not see the beam in your own eye?" Or to put it in Moffatt's translation: "How is it that you see the splinter in your brother's eye and fail to see the plank in your own eye?" And this is one of the tragedies of human nature. So we begin to love our enemies and love those persons that hate us whether in collective life or individual life by looking at ourselves."
- Martin Luther King
His speeches were largely free of revenge, instead focusing on the need to move forward. He was named as Man of the Year by Time magazine in 1963, it followed his famous and iconic "I have a Dream Speech" - delivered in Washington during a civil rights march.
The following year, Martin Luther King was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work towards social justice. King announced he would turn over the prize money $54,123 to the civil rights movement. With the prestige of the Nobel prize King was increasingly consulted by politicians such as Lyndon Johnson.
However, King's opposition to the Vietnam War did not endear him to the Johnson administration; King also began receiving increased scrutiny from the authorities, such as the FBI.
On April 4th 1968, King was assassinated. It was one day after he had delivered his final speech "I've Been to the Mountaintop"
In his honor America have instigated a national Martin Luther King Day. He remains symbolic of America's fight for justice and racial equality
Biography Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela (1918 - 2013) was a South African political activist who spent over 20 years in prison for his opposition to the apartheid regime. He was released in 1990 and, in 1994, was later elected the first leader of a democratic South Africa. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (jointly with F.W. de Klerk) in 1993 for his work in helping to end racial segregation in South Africa. He is considered the father of a democratic South Africa and widely admired for his ability to bring together a nation, previously divided by apartheid. Nelson Mandela is one of the most admired political leaders of the Twentieth and Twenty First Century for his vision to forgive and forge a new 'rainbow' nation.
"I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear. "
- Nelson Mandela
Short Bio of Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela was born in Transkei, South Africa on July 18, 1918. He was the son of a local tribal leader of the Tembu tribe. As a youngster Nelson, took part in the activities and initiation ceremonies of his local tribe. However, unlike his father Nelson Mandela gained a full education, studying at the University College of Fort Hare and also the University of Witwatersrand. Nelson was a good student and qualified with a law degree in 1942.
During his time at University, Nelson Mandela became increasingly aware of the racial inequality and injustice faced by non-white people. In 1943, he decided to join the ANC and actively take part in the struggle against apartheid.
As one of the few qualified lawyers, Nelson Mandela was in great demand; also his commitment to the cause saw him promoted through the ranks of the ANC. In 1956, Nelson Mandela, along with several other members of the ANC were arrested and charged with treason. After a lengthy and protracted court case the defendants were finally acquitted in 1961. However, with the ANC now banned, Nelson Mandela suggested an active armed resistance to the apartheid regime. This led to the formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe, which would act as a guerrilla resistance movement. Receiving training in other African countries, the Umkhonto we Sizwe took part in active sabotage.
In 1963, Mandela was again arrested and put on trial for treason. This time the State succeeded in convicting Mandela of plotting to overthrow the government. However, the case received considerable international attention and the apartheid regime of South Africa became under the glare of the international community. At the end of his trial, Nelson Mandela made a long speech, in which he was able to affirm his committment to the ideals of democracy.
We believe that South Africa belongs to all the people who live in it, and not to one group, be it black or white. We did not want an interracial war, and tried to avoid it to the last minute.
- Nelson Mandela, Supreme court of South Africa, Pretoria, April 20 1964
Closing remark at the 1964 trial
During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
- Nelson Mandela, Supreme court of South Africa, Pretoria, April 20 1964. (See: full speech)
Time in Prison Mandela’s death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and from 1964 –1981 he was incarcerated at Robben Island Prison, off Cape Town. In prison the conditions were sparse; however, Mandela was with many other political prisoners and there was a strong bond of friendship which helped to make more bearable the difficult prison conditions. Also, in prison Nelson Mandela was highly disciplined; he would try and study and take part in exercise every day. He later said these year of prison were a period of great learning, even if painful. Mandela also created friendships with some of the guards. Mandela would later say that he felt he was fighting the apartheid system and not individual white people. It was in prison, that Mandela became aware of the passion that Afrikana's had for rugby, and he developed an interest himself.
During his time in prison, Mandela became increasingly well known throughout the world. Mandela became the best known black leader and opposition to the apartheid regime. Largely unbeknown to Mandela, his continued imprisonment led to world wide pressure for his release. Many countries implemented sanctions on apartheid South Africa. Due to international pressure, from the mid 1980s, the apartheid regime increasingly began to negotiate with the ANC and Nelson Mandela in particular. On many occasions, Mandela was offered a conditional freedom. However, he always refused to put the political ideals of the ANC above his own freedom.
Freedom and a new Rainbow Nation Eventually Nelson Mandela was released on February 11, 1990. The day was a huge event for South Africa and the world. His release symbolic of the impending end of apartheid. Following his release there followed protracted negotiations, (often interspersed with tribal violence). However, in April 1994, South Africa had its first full and fair elections. The ANC, with 65% of the vote, were elected and Nelson Mandela became the first President of the new South Africa.
" The time for the healing of the wounds has come. The moment to bridge the chasms that divide us has come. The time to build is upon us."
- Nelson Mandela
As President, he sought to heal the rifts of the past. Despite being mistreated he was magnanimous in his dealing with his former oppressors. His forgiving and tolerant attitude gained the respect of the whole South African nation and considerably eased the transition to a full democracy.
"If there are dreams about a beautiful South Africa, there are also roads that lead to their goal. Two of these roads could be named Goodness and Forgiveness. "
- Nelson Mandela
In 1995, the Rugby World Cup was held in South Africa. Nelson Mandela was instrumental in encouraging black South Africans to support the 'Springboks' - The Springboks were previously reviled for being a symbol of white supremacy. Mandela, surprised many by meeting the Springbok captain, Francois Pienaar, before the world cup to wish the team well. After an epic final, in which South Africa beat New Zealand, Mandela, wearing a Springbok jersey, presented the trophy to the winning South Africa team,. De Klerk later stated Mandela successfully won the hearts of million white rugby fans.
Nelson Mandela also oversaw the formation of the Truth and Reconcilliation Committee in which former crimes of apartheid were investigated, but stressing individual forgiveness and helping the nation to look forward. The Committe was chaired by Desmond Tutu and Mandela later praised its work.
Nelson Mandela retired from the Presidency in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. In his later years, ill health curtailed his public life. However, he did speak out on certain issues. He was very critical of the Bush led invasion of Iraq during 2003. Speaking in a Newsweek interview in 2002, he expressed concern at American actions, he said:
I really wanted to retire and rest and spend more time with my children, my grandchildren and of course with my wife. But the problems are such that for anybody with a conscience who can use whatever influence he may have to try to bring about peace, it's difficult to say no. (10 September 2002)
He has also campaigned to highlight the issue of HIV / AIDS in South Africa.
Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, had 17 grandchildren. His first wife was Evelyn Ntoko Mase. His second wife was Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, they split after an acrimonious dispute. Winnie was alleged to have an involvment in human rights abuses. Mandela married for a third time on his 80th birthday to Graça Machel.
Nelson Mandela was often referred to as Madiba - his Xhosa clan name.
He died on 5 December, 2013 after a long illness with his family at his side. He was 95.
Barack Obama, the President of the US said:
"We will not likely see the likes of Nelson Mandela ever again, so it falls to us, as best we can, to carry forward the example that he set. He no longer belongs to us; he belongs to the ages."
"I learned that courage was not the absence of fear, but the triumph over it. The brave man is not he who does not feel afraid, but he who conquers that fear. "
- Nelson Mandela
Short Bio of Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela was born in Transkei, South Africa on July 18, 1918. He was the son of a local tribal leader of the Tembu tribe. As a youngster Nelson, took part in the activities and initiation ceremonies of his local tribe. However, unlike his father Nelson Mandela gained a full education, studying at the University College of Fort Hare and also the University of Witwatersrand. Nelson was a good student and qualified with a law degree in 1942.
During his time at University, Nelson Mandela became increasingly aware of the racial inequality and injustice faced by non-white people. In 1943, he decided to join the ANC and actively take part in the struggle against apartheid.
As one of the few qualified lawyers, Nelson Mandela was in great demand; also his commitment to the cause saw him promoted through the ranks of the ANC. In 1956, Nelson Mandela, along with several other members of the ANC were arrested and charged with treason. After a lengthy and protracted court case the defendants were finally acquitted in 1961. However, with the ANC now banned, Nelson Mandela suggested an active armed resistance to the apartheid regime. This led to the formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe, which would act as a guerrilla resistance movement. Receiving training in other African countries, the Umkhonto we Sizwe took part in active sabotage.
In 1963, Mandela was again arrested and put on trial for treason. This time the State succeeded in convicting Mandela of plotting to overthrow the government. However, the case received considerable international attention and the apartheid regime of South Africa became under the glare of the international community. At the end of his trial, Nelson Mandela made a long speech, in which he was able to affirm his committment to the ideals of democracy.
We believe that South Africa belongs to all the people who live in it, and not to one group, be it black or white. We did not want an interracial war, and tried to avoid it to the last minute.
- Nelson Mandela, Supreme court of South Africa, Pretoria, April 20 1964
Closing remark at the 1964 trial
During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.
- Nelson Mandela, Supreme court of South Africa, Pretoria, April 20 1964. (See: full speech)
Time in Prison Mandela’s death sentence was commuted to life imprisonment and from 1964 –1981 he was incarcerated at Robben Island Prison, off Cape Town. In prison the conditions were sparse; however, Mandela was with many other political prisoners and there was a strong bond of friendship which helped to make more bearable the difficult prison conditions. Also, in prison Nelson Mandela was highly disciplined; he would try and study and take part in exercise every day. He later said these year of prison were a period of great learning, even if painful. Mandela also created friendships with some of the guards. Mandela would later say that he felt he was fighting the apartheid system and not individual white people. It was in prison, that Mandela became aware of the passion that Afrikana's had for rugby, and he developed an interest himself.
During his time in prison, Mandela became increasingly well known throughout the world. Mandela became the best known black leader and opposition to the apartheid regime. Largely unbeknown to Mandela, his continued imprisonment led to world wide pressure for his release. Many countries implemented sanctions on apartheid South Africa. Due to international pressure, from the mid 1980s, the apartheid regime increasingly began to negotiate with the ANC and Nelson Mandela in particular. On many occasions, Mandela was offered a conditional freedom. However, he always refused to put the political ideals of the ANC above his own freedom.
Freedom and a new Rainbow Nation Eventually Nelson Mandela was released on February 11, 1990. The day was a huge event for South Africa and the world. His release symbolic of the impending end of apartheid. Following his release there followed protracted negotiations, (often interspersed with tribal violence). However, in April 1994, South Africa had its first full and fair elections. The ANC, with 65% of the vote, were elected and Nelson Mandela became the first President of the new South Africa.
" The time for the healing of the wounds has come. The moment to bridge the chasms that divide us has come. The time to build is upon us."
- Nelson Mandela
As President, he sought to heal the rifts of the past. Despite being mistreated he was magnanimous in his dealing with his former oppressors. His forgiving and tolerant attitude gained the respect of the whole South African nation and considerably eased the transition to a full democracy.
"If there are dreams about a beautiful South Africa, there are also roads that lead to their goal. Two of these roads could be named Goodness and Forgiveness. "
- Nelson Mandela
In 1995, the Rugby World Cup was held in South Africa. Nelson Mandela was instrumental in encouraging black South Africans to support the 'Springboks' - The Springboks were previously reviled for being a symbol of white supremacy. Mandela, surprised many by meeting the Springbok captain, Francois Pienaar, before the world cup to wish the team well. After an epic final, in which South Africa beat New Zealand, Mandela, wearing a Springbok jersey, presented the trophy to the winning South Africa team,. De Klerk later stated Mandela successfully won the hearts of million white rugby fans.
Nelson Mandela also oversaw the formation of the Truth and Reconcilliation Committee in which former crimes of apartheid were investigated, but stressing individual forgiveness and helping the nation to look forward. The Committe was chaired by Desmond Tutu and Mandela later praised its work.
Nelson Mandela retired from the Presidency in 1999, to be succeeded by Thabo Mbeki. In his later years, ill health curtailed his public life. However, he did speak out on certain issues. He was very critical of the Bush led invasion of Iraq during 2003. Speaking in a Newsweek interview in 2002, he expressed concern at American actions, he said:
I really wanted to retire and rest and spend more time with my children, my grandchildren and of course with my wife. But the problems are such that for anybody with a conscience who can use whatever influence he may have to try to bring about peace, it's difficult to say no. (10 September 2002)
He has also campaigned to highlight the issue of HIV / AIDS in South Africa.
Mandela was married three times, fathered six children, had 17 grandchildren. His first wife was Evelyn Ntoko Mase. His second wife was Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, they split after an acrimonious dispute. Winnie was alleged to have an involvment in human rights abuses. Mandela married for a third time on his 80th birthday to Graça Machel.
Nelson Mandela was often referred to as Madiba - his Xhosa clan name.
He died on 5 December, 2013 after a long illness with his family at his side. He was 95.
Barack Obama, the President of the US said:
"We will not likely see the likes of Nelson Mandela ever again, so it falls to us, as best we can, to carry forward the example that he set. He no longer belongs to us; he belongs to the ages."
Biography Sir Winston Churchill Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC (30 November 1874 – 24 January 1965) was a British politician and author, best known as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during the Second World War.
Churchill was famous for his stubborn resistance to Hitler during the darkest hours of the Second World War.
During the First World War he resigned as naval chief for his role in the unsuccessful Turkish campaign.
In the 1930s, his political eccentricities consigned him to the backbenches, where he was a vocal critic of appeasement and urged the government to re-arm. He also opposed Indian Independence and was a staunch supporter of the Empire.
However, after an unsuccessful start to the Second World War, the Commons chose Churchill to lead the UK in a national coalition. Churchill was instrumental in insisting Britain keep fighting. He opposed the voices in the cabinet seeking to make a deal with Hitler.
After winning the Second World War, he was shocked to lose the 1945 general election to a resurgent Labour party. But, under the Conservatives he returned to power in the 1950 election - accepting much of the post war consensus and end of the British Empire.
Churchill was famous for his stubborn resistance to Hitler during the darkest hours of the Second World War.
During the First World War he resigned as naval chief for his role in the unsuccessful Turkish campaign.
In the 1930s, his political eccentricities consigned him to the backbenches, where he was a vocal critic of appeasement and urged the government to re-arm. He also opposed Indian Independence and was a staunch supporter of the Empire.
However, after an unsuccessful start to the Second World War, the Commons chose Churchill to lead the UK in a national coalition. Churchill was instrumental in insisting Britain keep fighting. He opposed the voices in the cabinet seeking to make a deal with Hitler.
After winning the Second World War, he was shocked to lose the 1945 general election to a resurgent Labour party. But, under the Conservatives he returned to power in the 1950 election - accepting much of the post war consensus and end of the British Empire.
Biography of Bill Gates
Short bio of Bill Gates
William Henry Gates was born on October 28, 1955 in Seattle, Washington)
As founder of Microsoft, Bill Gates is one of the most influential and
richest people on the planet. Recent estimates of his wealth put it at $56
billion, this is the equivalent of the combined GDP of several African
economies. In recent years he has retired from working full time at Microsoft,
instead he has concentrated on working with his charitable foundation “The Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation”
Bill Gates foundation of Microsoft
Bill
Gates founded Microsoft in 1976 when he formed a contract with MITTS (Micro
Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems) to develop a basic operating system for
their new microcomputers. In the early days Bill Gates would review every line
of code. He was also involved in several aspects of Microsoft’s business such
as packing and sending off orders.
The big break for Microsoft came in 1980 when IBM approached them for a new
BASIC operating system for its new computers. In the early 1980s IBM was by far
the leading PC manufacture. However increasingly there developed many IBM PC
clones; (PCs developed by other companies compatible with IBM's). Microsoft
worked hard to sell its operating system to these other companies. Thus
Microsoft was able to gain the dominant position of software manufacture just
as the personal computer market started to boom. Since its early dominance no
other company has come close to displacing Microsoft as the dominant provider
of computer operating software.
Bill Gates - Windows
In 1990 Microsoft released its first version of Windows. This was a break
through in operating software as it replaced text interfaces with graphical
interfaces. It soon became a best seller and was able to capture the majority
of the operating system market share. In 1995 Windows 95 was released, setting
new standards and features for operating systems. This version of windows has
been the backbone of all future releases from Windows 2000 to the latest XP and
Vista.
Throughout his time in office Bill Gates has been keen to diversify the
business of Microsoft. For example Microsoft’s Internet Explorer has become the
dominant web browser, although this is mainly because it comes pre installed on
most new computers. In one area at least Microsoft has not gained Monopoly
power, and that is in the area of search engines. MSN live search has struggled
to gain more than 12% of market share. In this respect Microsoft has been
dwarfed by Google. Nevertheless the success of Microsoft in cornering various
aspects of the software market has led to several anti trust cases. In 1998 US
v Microsoft, Microsoft came close to being broken up into 3 smaller firms.
However on appeal Microsoft were able to survive as a single firm.
Philanthropic Activities – Bill Gates
Bill Gates is married to Melinda French (married in 1992). They have 3
children Jennifer (1996), Rory (1999) and Phoebe (2002). With his wife Bill
Gates formed the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Bill Gates says much of
the inspiration came from the example of David Rockefeller. Like Rockefeller,
Gates has sought to focus on global issues ignored by the government; he also
expressed an interest in improving the standards of public school education in
the US. He has appeared with Oprah Winfrey to promote this objective. In
respect to charitable, philanthropic activities Gates has also received
encouragement from investor Warren Buffet. Recently Gates announced that from
2008 he would work full time on his philanthropic interests. Forbes magazine
2004 estimated that Gates has given over $24 billion dollars in the 4 years
from 2000 to 2004.
Short bio of Bill Gates
William Henry Gates was born on October 28, 1955 in Seattle, Washington)
As founder of Microsoft, Bill Gates is one of the most influential and
richest people on the planet. Recent estimates of his wealth put it at $56
billion, this is the equivalent of the combined GDP of several African
economies. In recent years he has retired from working full time at Microsoft,
instead he has concentrated on working with his charitable foundation “The Bill
and Melinda Gates Foundation”
Bill Gates foundation of Microsoft
Bill
Gates founded Microsoft in 1976 when he formed a contract with MITTS (Micro
Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems) to develop a basic operating system for
their new microcomputers. In the early days Bill Gates would review every line
of code. He was also involved in several aspects of Microsoft’s business such
as packing and sending off orders.
The big break for Microsoft came in 1980 when IBM approached them for a new
BASIC operating system for its new computers. In the early 1980s IBM was by far
the leading PC manufacture. However increasingly there developed many IBM PC
clones; (PCs developed by other companies compatible with IBM's). Microsoft
worked hard to sell its operating system to these other companies. Thus
Microsoft was able to gain the dominant position of software manufacture just
as the personal computer market started to boom. Since its early dominance no
other company has come close to displacing Microsoft as the dominant provider
of computer operating software.
Bill Gates - Windows
In 1990 Microsoft released its first version of Windows. This was a break
through in operating software as it replaced text interfaces with graphical
interfaces. It soon became a best seller and was able to capture the majority
of the operating system market share. In 1995 Windows 95 was released, setting
new standards and features for operating systems. This version of windows has
been the backbone of all future releases from Windows 2000 to the latest XP and
Vista.
Throughout his time in office Bill Gates has been keen to diversify the
business of Microsoft. For example Microsoft’s Internet Explorer has become the
dominant web browser, although this is mainly because it comes pre installed on
most new computers. In one area at least Microsoft has not gained Monopoly
power, and that is in the area of search engines. MSN live search has struggled
to gain more than 12% of market share. In this respect Microsoft has been
dwarfed by Google. Nevertheless the success of Microsoft in cornering various
aspects of the software market has led to several anti trust cases. In 1998 US
v Microsoft, Microsoft came close to being broken up into 3 smaller firms.
However on appeal Microsoft were able to survive as a single firm.
Philanthropic Activities – Bill Gates
Bill Gates is married to Melinda French (married in 1992). They have 3
children Jennifer (1996), Rory (1999) and Phoebe (2002). With his wife Bill
Gates formed the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Bill Gates says much of
the inspiration came from the example of David Rockefeller. Like Rockefeller,
Gates has sought to focus on global issues ignored by the government; he also
expressed an interest in improving the standards of public school education in
the US. He has appeared with Oprah Winfrey to promote this objective. In
respect to charitable, philanthropic activities Gates has also received
encouragement from investor Warren Buffet. Recently Gates announced that from
2008 he would work full time on his philanthropic interests. Forbes magazine
2004 estimated that Gates has given over $24 billion dollars in the 4 years
from 2000 to 2004.
Muhammad Ali Biography
"I'm not the greatest; I'm the double greatest. Not only do I knock 'em out,
I pick the round. "
- Muhammad Ali
Short Biography Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. on January 17, 1942) is a retired
American boxer. In 1999, Ali was crowned "Sportsman of the Century" by Sports
Illustrated. He won the World Heavyweight Boxing championship three times, and
won the North American Boxing Federation championship as well as an Olympic gold
medal.
Ali was born in Louisville, Kentucky. He was named after his father, Cassius
Marcellus Clay, Sr., (who was named for the 19th century abolitionist and
politician Cassius Clay). Ali later changed his name after joining the Nation of
Islam and subsequently converted to Sunni Islam in 1975.
Early boxing career
Standing at 6'3" (1.91 m), Ali had a highly unorthodox style for a
heavyweight boxer. Rather than the normal boxing style of carrying the hands
high to defend the face, he instead relied on his ability to avoid a punch. In
Louisville, October 29, 1960, Cassius Clay won his first professional fight. He
won a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker, who was the police chief of
Fayetteville, West Virginia. From 1960 to 1963, the young fighter amassed a
record of 19-0, with 15 knockouts. He defeated such boxers as Tony Esperti, Jim
Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff, Lamar
Clark (who had won his previous 40 bouts by knockout), Doug Jones, and Henry
Cooper. Among Clay's victories were versus Sonny Banks (who knocked him down
during the bout), Alejandro Lavorante, and the aged Archie Moore (a boxing
legend who had fought over 200 previous fights, and who had been Clay's trainer
prior to Angelo Dundee).
Clay
won a disputed 10 round decision over Doug Jones, who, despite being lighter
than Clay, staggered Clay as soon as the fight started with a right hand, and
beat Clay to the punch continually during the fight. The fight was named "Fight
of the Year" for 1963. Clay's next fight was against Henry Cooper, who knocked
Clay down with a left hook near the end of the fourth round. The fight was
stopped in the 5th round due to a deep cut on Cooper's face.
Despite these close calls against Doug Jones and Henry Cooper, he became the
top contender for Sonny Liston's title. In spite of Clay's impressive record, he
was not expected to beat the champ. The fight was to be held on February 25,
1964 in Miami, Florida. During the weigh-in on the previous day, the
ever-bashful Ali—who frequently taunted Liston during the buildup by dubbing him
"the big ugly bear", among other things—declared that he would "float like a
butterfly and sting like a bee," and, in summarizing his strategy for avoiding
Liston's assaults, said, "Your hands can't hit what your eyes can't see."
Vietnam puts a pause in Ali's career
In 1964, Ali failed the Armed Forces qualifying test because his writing and
spelling skills were subpar. However, in early 1966, the tests were revised and
Ali was reclassified 1A. He refused to serve in the United States Army during
the Vietnam War as a conscientious objector, because "War is against the
teachings of the Holy Koran. I'm not trying to dodge the draft. We are not
supposed to take part in no wars unless declared by Allah or The Messenger. We
don't take part in Christian wars or wars of any unbelievers." Ali also famously
said,
"I ain't got no quarrel with those Vietcong" and "no Vietcong ever called me
nigger."
Ali refused to respond to his name being read out as Cassius Clay, stating,
as instructed by his mentors from the Nation of Islam, that Clay was the name
given to his slave ancestors by the white man.
"Cassius Clay is a slave name. I didn't choose it and I don't want it. I am
Muhammad Ali, a free name - it means beloved of God - and I insist people use it
when people speak to me and of me. "
By refusing to respond to this name, Ali's personal life was filled with
controversy. Ali was essentially banned from fighting in the United States and
forced to accept bouts abroad for most of 1966.
From his rematch with Liston in May 1965, to his final defense against Zora
Folley in March 1967, he defended his title nine times. Few other heavyweight
champions in history have fought so much in such a short period.
Ali was scheduled to fight WBA champion Ernie Terrell in a unification bout
in Toronto on March 29, 1966, but Terrell backed out and Ali won a 15-round
decision against substitute opponent George Chuvalo. He then went to England and
defeated Henry Cooper and Brian London by stoppage on cuts. Ali's next defense
was against German southpaw Karl Mildenberger, the first German to fight for the
title since Max Schmeling. In one of the tougher fights of his life, Ali stopped
his opponent in round 12.
Ali returned to the United States in November 1966 to fight Cleveland "Big
Cat" Williams in the Houston Astrodome. A year and a half before the fight,
Williams had been shot in the stomach at point-blank range by a Texas policeman.
As a result, Williams went into the fight missing one kidney, 10 feet of his
small intestine, and with a shriveled left leg from nerve damage from the
bullet. Ali beat Williams in three rounds.
On February 6, 1967, Ali returned to a Houston boxing ring to fight Terrell
in what became one of the uglier fights in boxing. Terrell had angered Ali by
calling him Clay, and the champion vowed to punish him for this insult. During
the fight, Ali kept shouting at his opponent, "What's my name, Uncle Tom ...
What's my name." Terrell suffered 15 rounds of brutal punishment, losing 13
of 15 rounds on two judges' scorecards, but Ali did not knock him out. Analysts,
including several who spoke to ESPN on the sports channel's "Ali Rap" special,
speculated that the fight only continued because Ali chose not to end it,
choosing instead to further punish Terrell. After the fight, Tex Maule wrote,
"It was a wonderful demonstration of boxing skill and a barbarous display of
cruelty."
Ali's actions in refusing military service and aligning himself with the
Nation of Islam made him a lightning rod for controversy, turning the outspoken
but popular former champion into one of that era's most recognizable and
controversial figures. Appearing at rallies with Nation of Islam leader Elijah
Muhammad and declaring his allegiance to him at a time when mainstream America
viewed them with suspicion — if not outright hostility — made Ali a target of
outrage, and suspicion as well. Ali seemed at times to even provoke such
reactions, with viewpoints that wavered from support for civil rights to
outright support of separatism.
Near the end of 1967, Ali was stripped of his title by the professional
boxing commission and would not be allowed to fight professionally for more than
three years. He was also convicted for refusing induction into the army and
sentenced to five years in prison. Over the course of those years in exile, Ali
fought to appeal his conviction. He stayed in the public spotlight and supported
himself by giving speeches primarily at rallies on college campuses that opposed
the Vietnam War.
"Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go 10,000 miles from home
and drop bombs and bullets on brown people while so-called Negro people in
Louisville are treated like dogs? "
- Muhammad Ali - explaining why he refused to fight in Vietnam
In 1970, Ali was allowed to fight again, and in late 1971 the Supreme Court
reversed his conviction.
Muhammad Ali's comeback
In 1970, Ali was finally able to get a boxing license. With the help of a
State Senator, he was granted a license to box in Georgia because it was the
only state in America without a boxing commission. In October 1970, he returned
to stop Jerry Quarry on a cut after three rounds. Shortly after the Quarry
fight, the New York State Supreme Court ruled that Ali was unjustly denied a
boxing license. Once again able to fight in New York, he fought Oscar Bonavena
at Madison Square Garden in December 1970. After a tough 14 rounds, Ali stopped
Bonavena in the 15th, paving the way for a title fight against Joe Frazier.
The Fight of the Century
Ali and Frazier fought each other on March 8, 1971, at Madison Square Garden.
The fight, known as '"The Fight of the Century", was one of the most eagerly
anticipated bouts of all time and remains one of the most famous. It featured
two skilled, undefeated fighters, both of whom had reasonable claims to the
heavyweight crown. The fight lived up to the hype, and Frazier punctuated his
victory by flooring Ali with a hard left hook in the 15th and final round and
won on points. Frank Sinatra — unable to acquire a ringside seat — took photos
of the match for Life Magazine. Legendary boxing announcer Don Dunphy and actor
and boxing aficionado Burt Lancaster called the action for the broadcast, which
reached millions of people.
Frazier eventually won the fight and retained the title with a unanimous
decision, dealing Ali his first professional loss. Despite an impressive
performance, Ali may have still been suffering from the effects of "ring rust"
due to his long layoff.
In 1973, after a string of victories over top Heavyweight opposition in a
campaign to force a rematch with Frazier, Ali split two bouts with Ken Norton
(in the bout that Ali lost to Norton, Ali suffered a broken jaw).
Rumble in the Jungle
In 1974, Ali gained a match with champion George Foreman. The fight took
place in Zaire (the Congo) - Ali wanted the fight to be there to help give an
economic boost to this part of Africa. The pre-match hype was as great as ever.
"Floats like a butterfly, sting like a bee, his hands can't hit what his eyes
can't see."
- Muhammad Ali - before the 1974 fight against George Foreman
Against the odds, Ali won the rematch in the eighth round. Ali had adopted a
strategy of wearing Foreman down though absorbing punches on the ropes - a
strategy later termed - rope a dope.
This gave Ali another chance at the world title against Frazer
It will be a killer, and a chiller, and a thriller, when I get the gorilla
in Manila."
- Ali before Frazer fight.
The fight lasted 14 rounds, with Ali finally proving victorious in the
testing African heat.
Muhammad Ali in retirement
Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in the early 1980s, following
which his motor functions began a slow decline. Although Ali's doctors disagreed
during the 1980s and 1990s about whether his symptoms were caused by boxing and
whether or not his condition was degenerative, he was ultimately diagnosed with
Pugilistic Parkinson's syndrome. By late 2005 it was reported that Ali's
condition was notably worsening. According to the documentary When We Were
Kings, when Ali was asked about whether he has any regrets about boxing due to
his disability, he responded that if he didn't box he would still be a painter
in Louisville, Kentucky.
Despite the disability, he remains a beloved and active public figure.
Recently he was voted into Forbes Celebrity 100 coming in at number 13 behind
Donald Trump. In 1985, he served as a guest referee at the inaugural
WrestleMania event. In 1987 he was selected by the California Bicentennial
Foundation for the U.S. Constitution to personify the vitality of the U.S.
Constitution and Bill of Rights in various high profile activities. Ali rode on
a float at the 1988 Tournament of Roses Parade, launching the U.S.
Constitution's 200th birthday commemoration. He also published an oral history,
Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times with Thomas Hauser, in 1991. Ali received a
Spirit of America Award calling him the most recognized American in the world.
In 1996, he had the honor of lighting the flame at the 1996 Summer Olympics in
Atlanta, Georgia.
He has appeared at the 1998 AFL Grand Final, where Anthony Pratt recruited
him to watch the game. He also greets runners at the start line of the Los
Angeles Marathon every year.
In 1999, Ali received a special one-off award from the BBC at its annual BBC
Sports Personality of the Year Award ceremony, which was the BBC Sports
Personality of the Century Award. His daughter Laila Ali also became a boxer in
1999, despite her father's earlier comments against female boxing in 1978:
"Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that... the body's
not made to be punched right here [patting his chest]. Get hit in the breast...
hard... and all that."
On September 13, 1999, Ali was named "Kentucky Athlete of the Century" by the
Kentucky Athletic Hall of Fame in ceremonies at the Galt House East.
In 2001, a biographical film, entitled Ali, was made, with Will Smith
starring as Ali. The film received mixed reviews, with the positives generally
attributed to the acting, as Smith and supporting actor Jon Voight earned
Academy Award nominations. Prior to making the Ali movie, Will Smith had
continually rejected the role of Ali until Muhammad Ali personally requested
that he accept the role. According to Smith, the first thing Ali said about the
subject to Smith was: "You ain't pretty enough to play me".
He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom at a White House ceremony on
November 9, 2005, and the prestigious "Otto Hahn peace medal in Gold" of the
United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN) in Berlin for his work with the US
civil rights movement and the United Nations (December 17 2005).
On November 19, 2005 (Ali's 19th wedding anniversary), the $60 million
non-profit Muhammad Ali Center opened in downtown Louisville, Kentucky. In
addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center focuses on core themes
of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth.
According to the Muhammad Ali Center website, "Since he retired from boxing,
Ali has devoted himself to humanitarian endeavors around the globe. He is a
devout Sunni Muslim, and travels the world over, lending his name and presence
to hunger and poverty relief, supporting education efforts of all kinds,
promoting adoption and encouraging people to respect and better understand one
another. It is estimated that he has helped to provide more than 22 million
meals to feed the hungry. Ali travels, on average, more than 200 days per
year."
At the FedEx Orange Bowl on January 2, 2007, Ali was an honorary captain for
the Louisville Cardinals wearing their white jersey, number 19. Ali was
accompanied by golf legend Arnold Palmer, who was the honorary captain for the
Wake Forest Demon Deacons, and Miami Heat star Dwyane Wade.
A youth club in Ali's hometown and a species of rose (Rosa ali) have also
been named after him.
Muhammad Ali currently lives on a small farm near Berrien Springs, Michigan
with his fourth wife, Yolanda 'Lonnie' Ali
"I'm not the greatest; I'm the double greatest. Not only do I knock 'em out,
I pick the round. "
- Muhammad Ali
Short Biography Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr. on January 17, 1942) is a retired
American boxer. In 1999, Ali was crowned "Sportsman of the Century" by Sports
Illustrated. He won the World Heavyweight Boxing championship three times, and
won the North American Boxing Federation championship as well as an Olympic gold
medal.
Ali was born in Louisville, Kentucky. He was named after his father, Cassius
Marcellus Clay, Sr., (who was named for the 19th century abolitionist and
politician Cassius Clay). Ali later changed his name after joining the Nation of
Islam and subsequently converted to Sunni Islam in 1975.
Early boxing career
Standing at 6'3" (1.91 m), Ali had a highly unorthodox style for a
heavyweight boxer. Rather than the normal boxing style of carrying the hands
high to defend the face, he instead relied on his ability to avoid a punch. In
Louisville, October 29, 1960, Cassius Clay won his first professional fight. He
won a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker, who was the police chief of
Fayetteville, West Virginia. From 1960 to 1963, the young fighter amassed a
record of 19-0, with 15 knockouts. He defeated such boxers as Tony Esperti, Jim
Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff, Lamar
Clark (who had won his previous 40 bouts by knockout), Doug Jones, and Henry
Cooper. Among Clay's victories were versus Sonny Banks (who knocked him down
during the bout), Alejandro Lavorante, and the aged Archie Moore (a boxing
legend who had fought over 200 previous fights, and who had been Clay's trainer
prior to Angelo Dundee).
Clay
won a disputed 10 round decision over Doug Jones, who, despite being lighter
than Clay, staggered Clay as soon as the fight started with a right hand, and
beat Clay to the punch continually during the fight. The fight was named "Fight
of the Year" for 1963. Clay's next fight was against Henry Cooper, who knocked
Clay down with a left hook near the end of the fourth round. The fight was
stopped in the 5th round due to a deep cut on Cooper's face.
Despite these close calls against Doug Jones and Henry Cooper, he became the
top contender for Sonny Liston's title. In spite of Clay's impressive record, he
was not expected to beat the champ. The fight was to be held on February 25,
1964 in Miami, Florida. During the weigh-in on the previous day, the
ever-bashful Ali—who frequently taunted Liston during the buildup by dubbing him
"the big ugly bear", among other things—declared that he would "float like a
butterfly and sting like a bee," and, in summarizing his strategy for avoiding
Liston's assaults, said, "Your hands can't hit what your eyes can't see."
Vietnam puts a pause in Ali's career
In 1964, Ali failed the Armed Forces qualifying test because his writing and
spelling skills were subpar. However, in early 1966, the tests were revised and
Ali was reclassified 1A. He refused to serve in the United States Army during
the Vietnam War as a conscientious objector, because "War is against the
teachings of the Holy Koran. I'm not trying to dodge the draft. We are not
supposed to take part in no wars unless declared by Allah or The Messenger. We
don't take part in Christian wars or wars of any unbelievers." Ali also famously
said,
"I ain't got no quarrel with those Vietcong" and "no Vietcong ever called me
nigger."
Ali refused to respond to his name being read out as Cassius Clay, stating,
as instructed by his mentors from the Nation of Islam, that Clay was the name
given to his slave ancestors by the white man.
"Cassius Clay is a slave name. I didn't choose it and I don't want it. I am
Muhammad Ali, a free name - it means beloved of God - and I insist people use it
when people speak to me and of me. "
By refusing to respond to this name, Ali's personal life was filled with
controversy. Ali was essentially banned from fighting in the United States and
forced to accept bouts abroad for most of 1966.
From his rematch with Liston in May 1965, to his final defense against Zora
Folley in March 1967, he defended his title nine times. Few other heavyweight
champions in history have fought so much in such a short period.
Ali was scheduled to fight WBA champion Ernie Terrell in a unification bout
in Toronto on March 29, 1966, but Terrell backed out and Ali won a 15-round
decision against substitute opponent George Chuvalo. He then went to England and
defeated Henry Cooper and Brian London by stoppage on cuts. Ali's next defense
was against German southpaw Karl Mildenberger, the first German to fight for the
title since Max Schmeling. In one of the tougher fights of his life, Ali stopped
his opponent in round 12.
Ali returned to the United States in November 1966 to fight Cleveland "Big
Cat" Williams in the Houston Astrodome. A year and a half before the fight,
Williams had been shot in the stomach at point-blank range by a Texas policeman.
As a result, Williams went into the fight missing one kidney, 10 feet of his
small intestine, and with a shriveled left leg from nerve damage from the
bullet. Ali beat Williams in three rounds.
On February 6, 1967, Ali returned to a Houston boxing ring to fight Terrell
in what became one of the uglier fights in boxing. Terrell had angered Ali by
calling him Clay, and the champion vowed to punish him for this insult. During
the fight, Ali kept shouting at his opponent, "What's my name, Uncle Tom ...
What's my name." Terrell suffered 15 rounds of brutal punishment, losing 13
of 15 rounds on two judges' scorecards, but Ali did not knock him out. Analysts,
including several who spoke to ESPN on the sports channel's "Ali Rap" special,
speculated that the fight only continued because Ali chose not to end it,
choosing instead to further punish Terrell. After the fight, Tex Maule wrote,
"It was a wonderful demonstration of boxing skill and a barbarous display of
cruelty."
Ali's actions in refusing military service and aligning himself with the
Nation of Islam made him a lightning rod for controversy, turning the outspoken
but popular former champion into one of that era's most recognizable and
controversial figures. Appearing at rallies with Nation of Islam leader Elijah
Muhammad and declaring his allegiance to him at a time when mainstream America
viewed them with suspicion — if not outright hostility — made Ali a target of
outrage, and suspicion as well. Ali seemed at times to even provoke such
reactions, with viewpoints that wavered from support for civil rights to
outright support of separatism.
Near the end of 1967, Ali was stripped of his title by the professional
boxing commission and would not be allowed to fight professionally for more than
three years. He was also convicted for refusing induction into the army and
sentenced to five years in prison. Over the course of those years in exile, Ali
fought to appeal his conviction. He stayed in the public spotlight and supported
himself by giving speeches primarily at rallies on college campuses that opposed
the Vietnam War.
"Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go 10,000 miles from home
and drop bombs and bullets on brown people while so-called Negro people in
Louisville are treated like dogs? "
- Muhammad Ali - explaining why he refused to fight in Vietnam
In 1970, Ali was allowed to fight again, and in late 1971 the Supreme Court
reversed his conviction.
Muhammad Ali's comeback
In 1970, Ali was finally able to get a boxing license. With the help of a
State Senator, he was granted a license to box in Georgia because it was the
only state in America without a boxing commission. In October 1970, he returned
to stop Jerry Quarry on a cut after three rounds. Shortly after the Quarry
fight, the New York State Supreme Court ruled that Ali was unjustly denied a
boxing license. Once again able to fight in New York, he fought Oscar Bonavena
at Madison Square Garden in December 1970. After a tough 14 rounds, Ali stopped
Bonavena in the 15th, paving the way for a title fight against Joe Frazier.
The Fight of the Century
Ali and Frazier fought each other on March 8, 1971, at Madison Square Garden.
The fight, known as '"The Fight of the Century", was one of the most eagerly
anticipated bouts of all time and remains one of the most famous. It featured
two skilled, undefeated fighters, both of whom had reasonable claims to the
heavyweight crown. The fight lived up to the hype, and Frazier punctuated his
victory by flooring Ali with a hard left hook in the 15th and final round and
won on points. Frank Sinatra — unable to acquire a ringside seat — took photos
of the match for Life Magazine. Legendary boxing announcer Don Dunphy and actor
and boxing aficionado Burt Lancaster called the action for the broadcast, which
reached millions of people.
Frazier eventually won the fight and retained the title with a unanimous
decision, dealing Ali his first professional loss. Despite an impressive
performance, Ali may have still been suffering from the effects of "ring rust"
due to his long layoff.
In 1973, after a string of victories over top Heavyweight opposition in a
campaign to force a rematch with Frazier, Ali split two bouts with Ken Norton
(in the bout that Ali lost to Norton, Ali suffered a broken jaw).
Rumble in the Jungle
In 1974, Ali gained a match with champion George Foreman. The fight took
place in Zaire (the Congo) - Ali wanted the fight to be there to help give an
economic boost to this part of Africa. The pre-match hype was as great as ever.
"Floats like a butterfly, sting like a bee, his hands can't hit what his eyes
can't see."
- Muhammad Ali - before the 1974 fight against George Foreman
Against the odds, Ali won the rematch in the eighth round. Ali had adopted a
strategy of wearing Foreman down though absorbing punches on the ropes - a
strategy later termed - rope a dope.
This gave Ali another chance at the world title against Frazer
It will be a killer, and a chiller, and a thriller, when I get the gorilla
in Manila."
- Ali before Frazer fight.
The fight lasted 14 rounds, with Ali finally proving victorious in the
testing African heat.
Muhammad Ali in retirement
Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in the early 1980s, following
which his motor functions began a slow decline. Although Ali's doctors disagreed
during the 1980s and 1990s about whether his symptoms were caused by boxing and
whether or not his condition was degenerative, he was ultimately diagnosed with
Pugilistic Parkinson's syndrome. By late 2005 it was reported that Ali's
condition was notably worsening. According to the documentary When We Were
Kings, when Ali was asked about whether he has any regrets about boxing due to
his disability, he responded that if he didn't box he would still be a painter
in Louisville, Kentucky.
Despite the disability, he remains a beloved and active public figure.
Recently he was voted into Forbes Celebrity 100 coming in at number 13 behind
Donald Trump. In 1985, he served as a guest referee at the inaugural
WrestleMania event. In 1987 he was selected by the California Bicentennial
Foundation for the U.S. Constitution to personify the vitality of the U.S.
Constitution and Bill of Rights in various high profile activities. Ali rode on
a float at the 1988 Tournament of Roses Parade, launching the U.S.
Constitution's 200th birthday commemoration. He also published an oral history,
Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times with Thomas Hauser, in 1991. Ali received a
Spirit of America Award calling him the most recognized American in the world.
In 1996, he had the honor of lighting the flame at the 1996 Summer Olympics in
Atlanta, Georgia.
He has appeared at the 1998 AFL Grand Final, where Anthony Pratt recruited
him to watch the game. He also greets runners at the start line of the Los
Angeles Marathon every year.
In 1999, Ali received a special one-off award from the BBC at its annual BBC
Sports Personality of the Year Award ceremony, which was the BBC Sports
Personality of the Century Award. His daughter Laila Ali also became a boxer in
1999, despite her father's earlier comments against female boxing in 1978:
"Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that... the body's
not made to be punched right here [patting his chest]. Get hit in the breast...
hard... and all that."
On September 13, 1999, Ali was named "Kentucky Athlete of the Century" by the
Kentucky Athletic Hall of Fame in ceremonies at the Galt House East.
In 2001, a biographical film, entitled Ali, was made, with Will Smith
starring as Ali. The film received mixed reviews, with the positives generally
attributed to the acting, as Smith and supporting actor Jon Voight earned
Academy Award nominations. Prior to making the Ali movie, Will Smith had
continually rejected the role of Ali until Muhammad Ali personally requested
that he accept the role. According to Smith, the first thing Ali said about the
subject to Smith was: "You ain't pretty enough to play me".
He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom at a White House ceremony on
November 9, 2005, and the prestigious "Otto Hahn peace medal in Gold" of the
United Nations Association of Germany (DGVN) in Berlin for his work with the US
civil rights movement and the United Nations (December 17 2005).
On November 19, 2005 (Ali's 19th wedding anniversary), the $60 million
non-profit Muhammad Ali Center opened in downtown Louisville, Kentucky. In
addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center focuses on core themes
of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth.
According to the Muhammad Ali Center website, "Since he retired from boxing,
Ali has devoted himself to humanitarian endeavors around the globe. He is a
devout Sunni Muslim, and travels the world over, lending his name and presence
to hunger and poverty relief, supporting education efforts of all kinds,
promoting adoption and encouraging people to respect and better understand one
another. It is estimated that he has helped to provide more than 22 million
meals to feed the hungry. Ali travels, on average, more than 200 days per
year."
At the FedEx Orange Bowl on January 2, 2007, Ali was an honorary captain for
the Louisville Cardinals wearing their white jersey, number 19. Ali was
accompanied by golf legend Arnold Palmer, who was the honorary captain for the
Wake Forest Demon Deacons, and Miami Heat star Dwyane Wade.
A youth club in Ali's hometown and a species of rose (Rosa ali) have also
been named after him.
Muhammad Ali currently lives on a small farm near Berrien Springs, Michigan
with his fourth wife, Yolanda 'Lonnie' Ali
Mahatma Gandhi Biography
Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent Indian political leader who campaigned for
Indian independence. He employed non-violent principles and peaceful
disobedience. He was assassinated in 1948 by a fanatic. In India, he is known as
'Father of the Nation'.
"When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways
of truth and love have always won. There have been tyrants, and murderers, and
for a time they can seem invincible, but in the end they always fall. Think of
it--always."
- Gandhi
Short Bio Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas
Gandhi was born, 1869, in Porbandar, India. Mohandas was from the social cast of
tradesmen. His mother was illiterate, but her common sense and religious
devotion had a lasting impact on Gandhi's character. As a youngster, Mohandas
was a good student, but the shy young boy displayed no signs of leadership. On
the death of his father, Mohandas travelled to England to gain a degree in law.
He became involved with the Vegetarian society and was once asked to translate
the Hindu Bhagavad Gita. This epic of Hindu literature awakened in Gandhi a
sense of pride in the Indian scriptures, of which the Gita was the pearl.
Around this time, he also studied the Bible and was struck by the teachings
of Jesus Christ - especially the emphasis on
humility and forgiveness. He remained committed to the Bible and Bhagavad Gita
throughout his life, though he was critical of aspects of both religions.
Gandhi in South Africa
On completing his degree in Law, Gandhi returned to India, where he was soon
sent to South Africa to practise law. In South Africa, Gandhi was struck by the
level of racial discrimination and injustice often experienced by Indians. It
was in South Africa that Gandhi first experimented with campaigns of civil
disobedience and protest; he called his non violent protests -satyagraha.
Despite being imprisoned for short periods of time he also supported the British
under certain conditions. He was decorated by the British for his efforts during
the Boer war and Zulu rebellion.
Gandhi and Indian Independence
After 21 years in South Africa, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He became
the leader of the Indian nationalist movement campaigning for home rule or
Swaraj.
Gandhi
successfully instigated a series of non violent protest. This included national
strikes for one or two days. The British sought to ban opposition, but the
nature of non-violent protest and strikes made it difficult to counter.
Gandhi also encouraged his followers to practise inner discipline to get
ready for independence. Gandhi said, the Indians had to prove they were
deserving of independence. This is in contrast to independence leaders such as
Aurobindo Ghose, who argued that Indian
independence was not about whether India would offer better or worse government,
but that it was the right for India to have self government.
Gandhi also clashed with others in the Indian independence movement such as
Subhas Chandra Bose who advocated direct action to overthrow the British.
Gandhi frequently called off strikes and non-violent protest if he heard
people were rioting or violence was involved.
In 1930, Gandhi led a famous march to the sea in protest at the new Salt
Acts. In the sea they made their own salt - in violation of British regulations.
Many hundreds were arrested and Indian jails were full of Indian independence
followers.
However, whilst the campaign was at its peak some Indian protestors killed
some British civilians, as a result Gandhi called off the independence movement
saying that India was not ready. This broke the heart of many Indians committed
to independence. It led to radicals like Bhagat Singh carrying on the campaign
for independence, which was particularly strong in Bengal.
Gandhi and the Partition of India
After the war, Britain indicated that they would give India independence.
However, with the support of the Muslims led by Jinnah, the British planned to
partition India into two - India and Pakistan. Ideologically Gandhi was opposed
to partition. He worked vigorously hard to show that Muslims and Hindus could
live together peacefully. At his prayer meetings, Muslim prayers were read out
along side Hindu and Christian prayers. However, Gandhi agreed to the partition
and spent the day of Independence in prayer mourning the partition. Even
Gandhi's fasts and appeals were insufficient to prevent the wave of sectarian
violence and killing that followed the partition.
Away from the politics of Indian independence Gandhi was harshly critical of
the Hindu Caste system. In particular he inveighed against the 'untouchable'
caste, who were treated abysmally by society. He launched many campaigns to
change the status of the untouchables. Although his campaigns were met with much
resistance, they did go along way to changing century old prejudices.
At the age of 78, Gandhi undertook another fast to try and prevent the
sectarian killing. After 5 days, the leaders agreed to stop killing. But, ten
days later, Gandhi was shot dead by a Hindu Brahmin opposed to Gandhi's support
for Muslims and the untouchables.
Gandhi and Religion
Gandhi was a seeker of the truth.
"In the attitude of silence the soul finds the path in a
clearer light, and what is elusive and deceptive resolves itself into crystal
clearness. Our life is a long and arduous quest after Truth."
- Gandhi
He said his great aim in life was to have a vision of God. He sought to see
worship God and promote religious understanding. He sought inspiration from many
different religions - Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism and
incorporate them into his own philosophy.
Mahatma Gandhi was a prominent Indian political leader who campaigned for
Indian independence. He employed non-violent principles and peaceful
disobedience. He was assassinated in 1948 by a fanatic. In India, he is known as
'Father of the Nation'.
"When I despair, I remember that all through history the ways
of truth and love have always won. There have been tyrants, and murderers, and
for a time they can seem invincible, but in the end they always fall. Think of
it--always."
- Gandhi
Short Bio Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas
Gandhi was born, 1869, in Porbandar, India. Mohandas was from the social cast of
tradesmen. His mother was illiterate, but her common sense and religious
devotion had a lasting impact on Gandhi's character. As a youngster, Mohandas
was a good student, but the shy young boy displayed no signs of leadership. On
the death of his father, Mohandas travelled to England to gain a degree in law.
He became involved with the Vegetarian society and was once asked to translate
the Hindu Bhagavad Gita. This epic of Hindu literature awakened in Gandhi a
sense of pride in the Indian scriptures, of which the Gita was the pearl.
Around this time, he also studied the Bible and was struck by the teachings
of Jesus Christ - especially the emphasis on
humility and forgiveness. He remained committed to the Bible and Bhagavad Gita
throughout his life, though he was critical of aspects of both religions.
Gandhi in South Africa
On completing his degree in Law, Gandhi returned to India, where he was soon
sent to South Africa to practise law. In South Africa, Gandhi was struck by the
level of racial discrimination and injustice often experienced by Indians. It
was in South Africa that Gandhi first experimented with campaigns of civil
disobedience and protest; he called his non violent protests -satyagraha.
Despite being imprisoned for short periods of time he also supported the British
under certain conditions. He was decorated by the British for his efforts during
the Boer war and Zulu rebellion.
Gandhi and Indian Independence
After 21 years in South Africa, Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He became
the leader of the Indian nationalist movement campaigning for home rule or
Swaraj.
Gandhi
successfully instigated a series of non violent protest. This included national
strikes for one or two days. The British sought to ban opposition, but the
nature of non-violent protest and strikes made it difficult to counter.
Gandhi also encouraged his followers to practise inner discipline to get
ready for independence. Gandhi said, the Indians had to prove they were
deserving of independence. This is in contrast to independence leaders such as
Aurobindo Ghose, who argued that Indian
independence was not about whether India would offer better or worse government,
but that it was the right for India to have self government.
Gandhi also clashed with others in the Indian independence movement such as
Subhas Chandra Bose who advocated direct action to overthrow the British.
Gandhi frequently called off strikes and non-violent protest if he heard
people were rioting or violence was involved.
In 1930, Gandhi led a famous march to the sea in protest at the new Salt
Acts. In the sea they made their own salt - in violation of British regulations.
Many hundreds were arrested and Indian jails were full of Indian independence
followers.
However, whilst the campaign was at its peak some Indian protestors killed
some British civilians, as a result Gandhi called off the independence movement
saying that India was not ready. This broke the heart of many Indians committed
to independence. It led to radicals like Bhagat Singh carrying on the campaign
for independence, which was particularly strong in Bengal.
Gandhi and the Partition of India
After the war, Britain indicated that they would give India independence.
However, with the support of the Muslims led by Jinnah, the British planned to
partition India into two - India and Pakistan. Ideologically Gandhi was opposed
to partition. He worked vigorously hard to show that Muslims and Hindus could
live together peacefully. At his prayer meetings, Muslim prayers were read out
along side Hindu and Christian prayers. However, Gandhi agreed to the partition
and spent the day of Independence in prayer mourning the partition. Even
Gandhi's fasts and appeals were insufficient to prevent the wave of sectarian
violence and killing that followed the partition.
Away from the politics of Indian independence Gandhi was harshly critical of
the Hindu Caste system. In particular he inveighed against the 'untouchable'
caste, who were treated abysmally by society. He launched many campaigns to
change the status of the untouchables. Although his campaigns were met with much
resistance, they did go along way to changing century old prejudices.
At the age of 78, Gandhi undertook another fast to try and prevent the
sectarian killing. After 5 days, the leaders agreed to stop killing. But, ten
days later, Gandhi was shot dead by a Hindu Brahmin opposed to Gandhi's support
for Muslims and the untouchables.
Gandhi and Religion
Gandhi was a seeker of the truth.
"In the attitude of silence the soul finds the path in a
clearer light, and what is elusive and deceptive resolves itself into crystal
clearness. Our life is a long and arduous quest after Truth."
- Gandhi
He said his great aim in life was to have a vision of God. He sought to see
worship God and promote religious understanding. He sought inspiration from many
different religions - Jainism, Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism and
incorporate them into his own philosophy.
Biography Margaret Thatcher.
Margaret
Thatcher was Britain's first female prime minister, who became a pivotal figure
in British and world politics. After studying at Somerville College, Oxford
university, Mrs Thatcher progressed through the ranks of the Conservative party
to become education minister in Ed Heath's government of the early 1970s. It
was as education minister that Mrs Thatcher developed a rather crude nickname
of "Maggie Thatcher - the milk snatcher" It was as education secretary that Mrs
Thatcher ended free school milk. Even as a minister, Mrs Thatcher proclaimed
that Britain would never have a female prime minister.
I don't think there will be a woman Prime Minister in my lifetime. (BBC
Television (5 March, 1973)
However, contrary to tradition and expectation, Mrs Thatcher was elected
Prime Minister in the Conservative landslide of 1979.
Mrs Thatcher wasted no time in introducing controversial economic policies.
She believed that a harsh implementation of Monetarism was necessary to
overcome the economic ills of inflation and low growth, which she blamed on the
previous Labour government. However, although she was successful in reducing
inflation, deflationary monetary policies caused a serious economic recession,
in which unemployment rose to 3 million. Opinion was strongly against many of
her policies. In a famous letter to the Times newspaper, 360 economist wrote a
letter arguing the government should change its policies immediately. However,
in true Thatcher style, she refused. Instead she stood up at the Conservative
party conference and stated: "You turn if you want to, but this lady is not for
turning." It was characteristic of her whole premiership - fierce in her
beliefs and unwavering in her commitment.
"To me, consensus seems to be: the process of abandoning all beliefs,
principles, values, and policies in search of something in which no one
believes, but to which no one objects; the process of avoiding the very issues
that need to be solved, merely because you cannot get agreement on the way
ahead. What great cause would have been fought and won under the banner ‘I
stand for consensus’?"
- Mrs Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (1993)
In
the midst of the recession, the Falklands islands were invaded by the
Argentinean army. Mrs Thatcher sent a British expeditionary force to reclaim
the islands. With relatively light casualties (although many hundreds died in
the conflict) the islands were retaken. This military victory brought a fillip
in support for Thatcher. However, it is worth noting she was criticised for
both her decision to sink the Belgrano (which was sailing away from the
conflict zone) Others also criticised her triumphalist spirit. On reclaiming
the islands, Mrs Thatcher proclaimed:
Just rejoice at that news and congratulate our forces and the marines. ..
Rejoice.
Many felt this was inappropriate given the recent casualties on both the
British and Argentinean sides.
Another defining feature of the early Thatcher administration was her battle
with trades unions. Thatcher wanted to reduce the power of trades unions, in
particular, she wished to reduce the influence of the militant mine workers
union, the NUM led by Arthur Scargill. Mrs Thatcher prepared the country
for a long strike; when the miners went all out on strike in 1984, they were
eventually forced back into work after a year long bitter struggle.
The remaining years of her premiership were overshadowed by her
controversial and dogmatic decision to stick with the poll tax. This was widely
regarded as an unfair tax because everybody paid the same amount regardless of
income. Opposition to the poll tax spilled over into violent protest and her
popularity plummeted. She also became associated with policies to promote
individualism. In one quote (often taken out of context) she said:
"They're casting their problem on society. And, you know, there is no
such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there
are families. And no government can do anything except through people, and
people must look to themselves first. It's our duty to look after ourselves and
then, also to look after our neighbour. People have got the entitlements too
much in mind, without the obligations."
Because of her declining popularity she was eventually forced out in 1990.
Although she was bitter about her perceived betrayal, she left an unprecedented
mark on the UK economic and political landscape. For good or ill, she changed
the British economic and political situation. It is ironic that when Labour
eventually regained power in 1997, it was largely due to the fact Tony Blair
and new Labour took on board many of the economic policies that Mrs Thatcher
had initiated. There was often a curious mutual respect between Mrs Thatcher
and Tony Blair.
Margaret
Thatcher was Britain's first female prime minister, who became a pivotal figure
in British and world politics. After studying at Somerville College, Oxford
university, Mrs Thatcher progressed through the ranks of the Conservative party
to become education minister in Ed Heath's government of the early 1970s. It
was as education minister that Mrs Thatcher developed a rather crude nickname
of "Maggie Thatcher - the milk snatcher" It was as education secretary that Mrs
Thatcher ended free school milk. Even as a minister, Mrs Thatcher proclaimed
that Britain would never have a female prime minister.
I don't think there will be a woman Prime Minister in my lifetime. (BBC
Television (5 March, 1973)
However, contrary to tradition and expectation, Mrs Thatcher was elected
Prime Minister in the Conservative landslide of 1979.
Mrs Thatcher wasted no time in introducing controversial economic policies.
She believed that a harsh implementation of Monetarism was necessary to
overcome the economic ills of inflation and low growth, which she blamed on the
previous Labour government. However, although she was successful in reducing
inflation, deflationary monetary policies caused a serious economic recession,
in which unemployment rose to 3 million. Opinion was strongly against many of
her policies. In a famous letter to the Times newspaper, 360 economist wrote a
letter arguing the government should change its policies immediately. However,
in true Thatcher style, she refused. Instead she stood up at the Conservative
party conference and stated: "You turn if you want to, but this lady is not for
turning." It was characteristic of her whole premiership - fierce in her
beliefs and unwavering in her commitment.
"To me, consensus seems to be: the process of abandoning all beliefs,
principles, values, and policies in search of something in which no one
believes, but to which no one objects; the process of avoiding the very issues
that need to be solved, merely because you cannot get agreement on the way
ahead. What great cause would have been fought and won under the banner ‘I
stand for consensus’?"
- Mrs Thatcher, The Downing Street Years (1993)
In
the midst of the recession, the Falklands islands were invaded by the
Argentinean army. Mrs Thatcher sent a British expeditionary force to reclaim
the islands. With relatively light casualties (although many hundreds died in
the conflict) the islands were retaken. This military victory brought a fillip
in support for Thatcher. However, it is worth noting she was criticised for
both her decision to sink the Belgrano (which was sailing away from the
conflict zone) Others also criticised her triumphalist spirit. On reclaiming
the islands, Mrs Thatcher proclaimed:
Just rejoice at that news and congratulate our forces and the marines. ..
Rejoice.
Many felt this was inappropriate given the recent casualties on both the
British and Argentinean sides.
Another defining feature of the early Thatcher administration was her battle
with trades unions. Thatcher wanted to reduce the power of trades unions, in
particular, she wished to reduce the influence of the militant mine workers
union, the NUM led by Arthur Scargill. Mrs Thatcher prepared the country
for a long strike; when the miners went all out on strike in 1984, they were
eventually forced back into work after a year long bitter struggle.
The remaining years of her premiership were overshadowed by her
controversial and dogmatic decision to stick with the poll tax. This was widely
regarded as an unfair tax because everybody paid the same amount regardless of
income. Opposition to the poll tax spilled over into violent protest and her
popularity plummeted. She also became associated with policies to promote
individualism. In one quote (often taken out of context) she said:
"They're casting their problem on society. And, you know, there is no
such thing as society. There are individual men and women, and there
are families. And no government can do anything except through people, and
people must look to themselves first. It's our duty to look after ourselves and
then, also to look after our neighbour. People have got the entitlements too
much in mind, without the obligations."
Because of her declining popularity she was eventually forced out in 1990.
Although she was bitter about her perceived betrayal, she left an unprecedented
mark on the UK economic and political landscape. For good or ill, she changed
the British economic and political situation. It is ironic that when Labour
eventually regained power in 1997, it was largely due to the fact Tony Blair
and new Labour took on board many of the economic policies that Mrs Thatcher
had initiated. There was often a curious mutual respect between Mrs Thatcher
and Tony Blair.
Charles de Gaulle Biography
Charles
de Gaulle (22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French general and
statesman who acted as leader of the Free French during the Second World War.
One of the most influential French politicians he helped found the Fifth
Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969. He was a
right wing conservative and was a keen French Nationalist. His brand of ring
wing conservatism is branded Gaullism.
Short Biography of Charles de Gaulle
"Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be
extinguished and will not be extinguished. "
- Address June 18, 1940
Charles de Gaulle was born in Lille (Flanders) in 1890. His family was devout
Roman Catholic and conservative. This brand of nationalism and conservative
Catholicism influenced De Gaulle’s politics throughout his life.
De Gaulle, studied in Paris and joined the military academy of St. Cyr. In
1913, he joined an infantry regiment commanded by Petain. During the First World
War, De Gaulle was wounded on two occasions and was involved in the heavy
fighting around Verdun. It was at Verdun, in 1916, that de Gaulle was captured
by the Germans and spent the remainder of the war as a Prisoner of war – despite
his repeated attempts to escape.
After the war, De Gaulle remained in the military and became interested in
the new developments of military strategy. He came to believe the future of war
would rest on highly mobile mechanized units – principally tank units backed up
with air support. In 1934, he published a book ‘The Army of the Future’ which
talked about the importance of this new form of fast moving militarised warfare.
However, De Gaulle’s views were not popular with either the military or
politicians. The French remained committed to the more static view of warfare
characterized by the Maginot line and the trenches of the First World War.
Combined with De Gaulle’s capacity to irritate senior officers, he was
marginalised from the military and refused promotion. He also fell out with
Petain over a 1938 book on ‘France and Her Army’
However, during the German invasion of France in 1940, De Gaulle was given
command of a tank unit. At Caumont on the 28th May, 1940, his unit provided one
of the few occasions where the German advance was stalled and briefly pushed
back. However, lacking air support and overwhelmed by the superior German armed
divisions, French fell into a humiliating retreat. During the crisis, De Gaulle
was briefly made Minister of War by French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud,
But, after just six weeks of fighting, many French politicians, led by Petain,
wanted to seek an armistice with the Germans. This led to the creation of Vichy
France.
General Charles de Gaulle was the most senior army officer to reject the
armistice – seeing it as a betrayal of France. He said in a proclamation, June
18 1940.
"France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war. "
"Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be
extinguished and will not be extinguished. Tomorrow, as today, I will speak on
Radio London."
Under threat of arrest he escaped to Britain where he became the leader and
symbol of the Free French who opposed the German occupation.
Initially, Charles de Gaulle was a marginal figure, his radio broadcasts to
France being picked up by very few. However, after the initial shock of defeat
wore off, he became increasingly the focal point of the French resistance. His
speeches were shared amongst the French people clandestinely listening to BBC
broadcasts
Let us be firm, pure and faithful; at the end of our sorrow, there is the
greatest glory of the world, that of the men who did not give in.
(Charles de Gaulle, July 14 1943)
Despite divisions within the French resistance (especially with the Communist
party) De Gaulle was able to unify the resistance movement in 1943, which
maintained an uneasy truce until liberation in 1944.
In 1943, De Gaulle moved to Algeria where he formed the provisional
government of France. This presumption of forming a government, annoyed the
allies and the French were excluded from the D-Day operations. However, during
the liberation of Paris, a small French unit was allowed to lead the drive onto
the capital, helping to restore French pride in being part of France’s
liberation.
After much persuasion, at the last minute, France was allowed to be one of
the four major powers in the post war reconstruction of Europe. In November
1945, De Gaulle was unanimously elected the first leader of the new French
government. He held this post until his resignation in 1946. After his
resignation, formed his own political party the Rally of the French People (RFP)
but it never attained electoral success and De Gaulle retired from politics.
However, during the Algerian crisis of 1958, De Gaulle was recalled to power.
He was elected President and helped found the new constitution of the Fifth
French republic. Despite being a strong nationalist, he agreed to give
Algeria independence. This was seen as a betrayal by many in the military who
had supported De Gaulle and were committed to defending Algeria. This led to
numerous attempts on his life, though non were successful.
Back in power, De Gaulle wished to pursue an independent foreign policy, not
aligned to either the US or UK. He took France out of NATO, created their own
atom bomb and twice vetoed British entry into the European Economic
Community.
The last years of his presidency were ones of great turmoil. Massive student
protests and riots left the country de stabilised and in April 1969, he left
office. He died shortly after on the 9th November
Charles
de Gaulle (22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French general and
statesman who acted as leader of the Free French during the Second World War.
One of the most influential French politicians he helped found the Fifth
Republic in 1958 and served as its first President from 1959 to 1969. He was a
right wing conservative and was a keen French Nationalist. His brand of ring
wing conservatism is branded Gaullism.
Short Biography of Charles de Gaulle
"Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be
extinguished and will not be extinguished. "
- Address June 18, 1940
Charles de Gaulle was born in Lille (Flanders) in 1890. His family was devout
Roman Catholic and conservative. This brand of nationalism and conservative
Catholicism influenced De Gaulle’s politics throughout his life.
De Gaulle, studied in Paris and joined the military academy of St. Cyr. In
1913, he joined an infantry regiment commanded by Petain. During the First World
War, De Gaulle was wounded on two occasions and was involved in the heavy
fighting around Verdun. It was at Verdun, in 1916, that de Gaulle was captured
by the Germans and spent the remainder of the war as a Prisoner of war – despite
his repeated attempts to escape.
After the war, De Gaulle remained in the military and became interested in
the new developments of military strategy. He came to believe the future of war
would rest on highly mobile mechanized units – principally tank units backed up
with air support. In 1934, he published a book ‘The Army of the Future’ which
talked about the importance of this new form of fast moving militarised warfare.
However, De Gaulle’s views were not popular with either the military or
politicians. The French remained committed to the more static view of warfare
characterized by the Maginot line and the trenches of the First World War.
Combined with De Gaulle’s capacity to irritate senior officers, he was
marginalised from the military and refused promotion. He also fell out with
Petain over a 1938 book on ‘France and Her Army’
However, during the German invasion of France in 1940, De Gaulle was given
command of a tank unit. At Caumont on the 28th May, 1940, his unit provided one
of the few occasions where the German advance was stalled and briefly pushed
back. However, lacking air support and overwhelmed by the superior German armed
divisions, French fell into a humiliating retreat. During the crisis, De Gaulle
was briefly made Minister of War by French Prime Minister Paul Reynaud,
But, after just six weeks of fighting, many French politicians, led by Petain,
wanted to seek an armistice with the Germans. This led to the creation of Vichy
France.
General Charles de Gaulle was the most senior army officer to reject the
armistice – seeing it as a betrayal of France. He said in a proclamation, June
18 1940.
"France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war. "
"Whatever happens, the flame of the French resistance must not be
extinguished and will not be extinguished. Tomorrow, as today, I will speak on
Radio London."
Under threat of arrest he escaped to Britain where he became the leader and
symbol of the Free French who opposed the German occupation.
Initially, Charles de Gaulle was a marginal figure, his radio broadcasts to
France being picked up by very few. However, after the initial shock of defeat
wore off, he became increasingly the focal point of the French resistance. His
speeches were shared amongst the French people clandestinely listening to BBC
broadcasts
Let us be firm, pure and faithful; at the end of our sorrow, there is the
greatest glory of the world, that of the men who did not give in.
(Charles de Gaulle, July 14 1943)
Despite divisions within the French resistance (especially with the Communist
party) De Gaulle was able to unify the resistance movement in 1943, which
maintained an uneasy truce until liberation in 1944.
In 1943, De Gaulle moved to Algeria where he formed the provisional
government of France. This presumption of forming a government, annoyed the
allies and the French were excluded from the D-Day operations. However, during
the liberation of Paris, a small French unit was allowed to lead the drive onto
the capital, helping to restore French pride in being part of France’s
liberation.
After much persuasion, at the last minute, France was allowed to be one of
the four major powers in the post war reconstruction of Europe. In November
1945, De Gaulle was unanimously elected the first leader of the new French
government. He held this post until his resignation in 1946. After his
resignation, formed his own political party the Rally of the French People (RFP)
but it never attained electoral success and De Gaulle retired from politics.
However, during the Algerian crisis of 1958, De Gaulle was recalled to power.
He was elected President and helped found the new constitution of the Fifth
French republic. Despite being a strong nationalist, he agreed to give
Algeria independence. This was seen as a betrayal by many in the military who
had supported De Gaulle and were committed to defending Algeria. This led to
numerous attempts on his life, though non were successful.
Back in power, De Gaulle wished to pursue an independent foreign policy, not
aligned to either the US or UK. He took France out of NATO, created their own
atom bomb and twice vetoed British entry into the European Economic
Community.
The last years of his presidency were ones of great turmoil. Massive student
protests and riots left the country de stabilised and in April 1969, he left
office. He died shortly after on the 9th November
Amelia
Earhart
Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart, c. 1935
Born
(1897-07-24)July 24, 1897
Atchison, Kansas, U.S.
Disappeared
July 2, 1937 (aged 39)
Pacific Ocean, en route to Howland Island
Status
Declared dead in absentia
January 5,
1939(1939-01-05) (aged 41)
Nationality
American
Known for
Many early aviation records, including first woman to fly solo across the
Atlantic Ocean.
Spouse(s)
George P. Putnam
Signature
Amelia Mary Earhart (/ˈɛərhɑrt/; July 24, 1897 – disappeared July
2, 1937) was an American aviation pioneer and author.[1][N 1] Earhart was
the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic
Ocean.[3][N 2] She
received the U.S. Distinguished Flying Cross for this record.[5] She set many
other records,[2] wrote
best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the
formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female
pilots.[6] Earhart
joined the faculty of the Purdue University aviation department in 1935 as
a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and help inspire others
with her love for aviation. She was also a member of the National
Woman's Party, and an early supporter of the Equal
Rights Amendment.[7][8]
During an attempt to make a circumnavigational flight of the globe in 1937 in
a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10 Electra, Earhart disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near
Howland Island. Fascination with her life, career
and disappearance continues to this day.[N 3]
Contents [show]
Early life
Childhood
Amelia Earhart as a child
Amelia Mary Earhart, daughter of German American Samuel "Edwin" Stanton Earhart
(1867-1930) [10] and Amelia
"Amy" Otis Earhart (1869–1962),[11] was born in
Atchison, Kansas, in the home
of her maternal grandfather, Alfred Gideon Otis (1827–1912), a
former federal judge, president of the Atchison Savings
Bank and a leading citizen in the town. Amelia was the second child of the
marriage, after an infant stillborn in August 1896.[12] Alfred Otis
had not initially favored the marriage and was not satisfied with Edwin's
progress as a lawyer.[13]
Earhart was named, according to family custom, after her two grandmothers
(Amelia Josephine Harres and Mary Wells Patton).[12] From an
early age Earhart, nicknamed "Meeley" (sometimes "Millie") was the ringleader
while her younger sister (two years her junior), Grace Muriel Earhart
(1899–1998), nicknamed "Pidge", acted the dutiful follower.[14] Both girls
continued to answer to their childhood nicknames well into adulthood.[12] Their
upbringing was unconventional since Amy Earhart did not believe in molding her
children into "nice little girls."[15]
Meanwhile their maternal grandmother disapproved of the "bloomers" worn by Amy's children and although
Earhart liked the freedom they provided, she was aware other girls in the
neighborhood did not wear them.
Early influence
A spirit of adventure seemed to abide in the Earhart children with the pair
setting off daily to explore their neighborhood.[N
4] As a child, Earhart spent long hours
playing with Pidge, climbing trees, hunting rats with a rifle and
"belly-slamming" her sled downhill. Although this love of the outdoors and
"rough-and-tumble" play was common to many youngsters, some biographers have
characterized the young Earhart as a tomboy.[17]
The girls kept "worms, moths, katydids and a tree toad"[18] in a growing
collection gathered in their outings. In 1904, with the help of her uncle, she
cobbled together a home-made ramp fashioned after a roller coaster she had seen
on a trip to St. Louis and secured the ramp to the roof of the
family toolshed. Earhart's well-documented first flight ended dramatically. She
emerged from the broken wooden box that had served as a sled with a bruised lip,
torn dress and a "sensation of exhilaration." She exclaimed, "Oh, Pidge, it's
just like flying!"[13]
Although there had been some missteps in his career up to that point, in 1907
Edwin Earhart's job as a claims officer for the Rock
Island Railroad led to a transfer to Des Moines, Iowa. The next year, at the age of
10,[19] Earhart saw
her first aircraft at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines.[20][21] Her father
tried to interest her and her sister in taking a flight. One look at the rickety
"flivver" was enough for Earhart, who promptly asked if they could go back to
the merry-go-round.[22] She later
described the biplane as "a thing of rusty wire and wood and not at all
interesting."[23]
Education
The two sisters, Amelia and Muriel (she went by her middle name from her
teens on), remained with their grandparents in Atchison, while their parents
moved into new, smaller quarters in Des Moines. During this period, Earhart
received a form of home-schooling together with her sister, from her mother and
a governess. She later recounted that she was "exceedingly fond of reading"[24] and spent
countless hours in the large family library. In 1909, when the family was
finally reunited in Des Moines, the Earhart children were enrolled in public
school for the first time with Amelia Earhart entering the seventh grade at the
age of 12 years.
Family fortunes
While the family's finances seemingly improved with the acquisition of a new
house and even the hiring of two servants, it soon became apparent Edwin was an
alcoholic. Five years later (in 1914), he was forced to retire and although he
attempted to rehabilitate himself through treatment, he was never reinstated at
the Rock Island Railroad. At about this time, Earhart's grandmother Amelia Otis
died suddenly, leaving a substantial estate that placed her daughter's share in
trust, fearing that Edwin's drinking would drain the funds. The Otis house, and
all of its contents, was auctioned; Earhart was heartbroken and later described
it as the end of her childhood.[25]
In 1915, after a long search, Earhart's father found work as a clerk at the
Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota,
where Earhart entered Central High School as a junior. Edwin applied
for a transfer to Springfield, Missouri, in 1915 but the current
claims officer reconsidered his retirement and demanded his job back, leaving
the elder Earhart with nowhere to go. Facing another calamitous move, Amy
Earhart took her children to Chicago where they lived with friends. Earhart made
an unusual condition in the choice of her next schooling; she canvassed nearby
high schools in Chicago to find the best science program. She rejected the high
school nearest her home when she complained that the chemistry lab was "just
like a kitchen sink."[26] She
eventually was enrolled in Hyde
Park High School but spent a miserable semester where a yearbook
caption captured the essence of her unhappiness, "A.E. – the girl in brown who
walks alone."[27]
Earhart graduated from Hyde Park High School in 1916.[28] Throughout
her troubled childhood, she had continued to aspire to a future career; she kept
a scrapbook of newspaper clippings about successful women in predominantly
male-oriented fields, including film direction and production, law, advertising,
management and mechanical engineering.[19] She began
junior college at Ogontz School in Rydal, Pennsylvania but did not complete her
program.[29][N 5]
During Christmas vacation in 1917, Earhart visited her sister in Toronto. World War I had been raging and Earhart saw the
returning wounded soldiers. After receiving training as a nurse's aide from the Red
Cross, she began work with the Volunteer
Aid Detachment at Spadina Military Hospital. Her duties included
preparing food in the kitchen for patients with special diets and handing out
prescribed medication in the hospital's dispensary.[30][31]
1918 Spanish flu
pandemic
When the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic reached Toronto, Earhart was
engaged in arduous nursing duties including night shifts at the Spadina Military
Hospital.[32][33] She became a
patient herself, suffering from pneumonia and maxillary sinusitis.[32] She was
hospitalized in early November 1918 owing to pneumonia and discharged in
December 1918, about two months after the illness had started.[32] Her sinus-related symptoms were pain and pressure
around one eye and copious mucus drainage via the nostrils and throat.[34] In the
hospital, in the pre-antibiotic era, she had painful minor operations to wash
out the affected maxillary sinus,[32][33][34] but these
procedures were not successful and Earhart subsequently suffered from worsening
headache attacks. Her convalescence lasted nearly a year, which she spent at her
sister's home in Northampton, Massachusetts.[33] She passed
the time by reading poetry, learning to play the banjo and studying
mechanics.[32] Chronic
sinusitis was to significantly affect Earhart's flying and activities in later
life,[34] and
sometimes even on the airfield she was forced to wear a bandage on her cheek to
cover a small drainage tube.[35]
Early flying
experiences
At about that time, with a young woman friend, Earhart visited an air fair
held in conjunction with the Canadian National Exposition in Toronto. One of
the highlights of the day was a flying exhibition put on by a World War I ace.[36]
The pilot overhead spotted Earhart and her friend, who were watching from an
isolated clearing, and dived at them. "I am sure he said to himself, 'Watch me
make them scamper,'" she said. Earhart stood her ground as the aircraft came
close. "I did not understand it at the time," she said, "but I believe that
little red airplane said something to me as it swished by."[37]
By 1919 Earhart prepared to enter Smith College but changed her mind and enrolled
at Columbia University, enrolling in a course in
medical studies among other programs.[38]
She quit a year later to be with her parents, who had reunited in
California.
L–R: Neta
Snook and Amelia Earhart in front of Earhart's Kinner Airster, c. 1921
In Long Beach, on December 28, 1920, Earhart and her
father visited an airfield where Frank Hawks (who later gained fame as an air racer) gave her a ride that would forever
change Earhart's life. "By the time I had got two or three hundred feet off the
ground," she said, "I knew I had to fly."[39] After that
10-minute flight (that cost her father $10), she immediately became determined
to learn to fly. Working at a variety of jobs, including photographer, truck
driver, and stenographer at the local telephone company, she
managed to save $1,000 for flying lessons. Earhart had her first lessons,
beginning on January 3, 1921, at Kinner Field, near Long Beach. In order to
reach the airfield, Earhart had to take a bus to the end of the line, then walk
four miles (6 km). Earhart's mother also provided part of the $1,000
"stake" against her "better judgement."[40] Her teacher
was Anita
"Neta" Snook, a pioneer female aviator who used a surplus Curtiss JN-4 "Canuck" for training. Earhart
arrived with her father and a singular request, "I want to fly. Will you teach
me?"[41]
Earhart's commitment to flying required her to accept the frequently hard
work and rudimentary conditions that accompanied early aviation training. She
chose a leather jacket, but aware that other aviators would be judging her, she
slept in it for three nights to give the jacket a "worn" look. To complete her
image transformation, she also cropped her hair short in the style of other
female flyers.[42] Six months
later, Earhart purchased a secondhand bright yellow Kinner Airster biplane which she nicknamed "The Canary." On
October 22, 1922, Earhart flew the Airster to an altitude of 14,000 feet
(4,300 m), setting a world record for female pilots. On May 15, 1923,
Earhart became the 16th woman to be issued a pilot's license (#6017)[43] by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).[44]
Aviation career
and marriage
Amelia Earhart, Los Angeles, 1928
X5665 – 1926 "CIT-9 Safety Plane" – California Institute of Technology (CalTech)
Aerospace model 9 Merrill-type biplane designed by Albert Adams
Merrill (Instructor in Aeronautics); 45hp Kinner engine; wingspan: 24'0".
Boston
Throughout this period, her grandmother's inheritance, which was now
administered by her mother, was constantly depleted until it finally ran out
following a disastrous investment in a failed gypsum mine. Consequently, with no immediate
prospects for recouping her investment in flying, Earhart sold the "Canary" as
well as a second Kinner and bought a yellow Kissel
"Speedster" two-passenger automobile, which she named the "Yellow Peril."
Simultaneously, Earhart experienced an exacerbation of her old sinus problem as
her pain worsened and in early 1924, she was hospitalized for another sinus
operation, which was again unsuccessful. After trying her hand at a number of
unusual ventures including setting up a photography company, Earhart set out in
a new direction.[45] Following
her parents' divorce in 1924, she drove her mother in the "Yellow Peril" on a
transcontinental trip from California with stops throughout the West and even a
jaunt up to Calgary, Alberta. The meandering tour eventually
brought the pair to Boston, Massachusetts, where Earhart underwent another
sinus procedure, this operation being more successful. After recuperation, she
returned for several months to Columbia University but was forced to abandon her
studies and any further plans for enrolling at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology because her
mother could no longer afford the tuition fees and associated costs. Soon after,
she found employment first as a teacher, then as a social worker in 1925 at Denison House, living in
Medford, Massachusetts.[46]
When Earhart lived in Medford, she maintained her interest in aviation,
becoming a member of the American Aeronautical Society's Boston chapter and was
eventually elected its vice president.[47]
She flew out of Dennison Airport (later the Naval
Air Station Squantum) in Quincy, Massachusetts, and helped finance its
operation by investing a small sum of money.[48]
Earhart also flew the first official flight out of Dennison Airport in 1927.[49] As well as
acting as a sales representative for Kinner aircraft in the Boston area, Earhart
wrote local newspaper
columns promoting flying and as her local celebrity grew, she
laid out the plans for an organization devoted to female flyers.[50]
1928 transatlantic
flight
Amelia Earhart being greeted by Mrs. Foster Welch, Mayor of Southampton, June 20, 1928
After Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic in 1927, Amy Phipps Guest, (1873–1959),
expressed interest in being the first woman to fly (or be flown) across the
Atlantic Ocean. After deciding the trip was too perilous for her to undertake,
she offered to sponsor the project, suggesting they find "another girl with the
right image." While at work one afternoon in April 1928, Earhart got a phone
call from Capt. Hilton H. Railey, who asked her, "Would you like to fly the
Atlantic?"
The project coordinators (including book publisher and publicist George P. Putnam) interviewed Earhart and asked
her to accompany pilot Wilmer Stultz and copilot/mechanic Louis Gordon
on the flight, nominally as a passenger, but with the added duty of keeping the
flight log. The team departed Trepassey Harbor, Newfoundland
in a Fokker
F.VIIb/3m on June 17, 1928, landing at Burry
Port (near Llanelli), Wales, United Kingdom, exactly 20
hours and 40 minutes later.[51] Since most
of the flight was on "instruments" and Earhart had no training for this type of
flying, she did not pilot the aircraft. When interviewed after landing, she
said, "Stultz did all the flying—had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of
potatoes." She added, "...maybe someday I'll try it alone."[52]
While in England, Earhart is reported as receiving a rousing welcome on June
19, 1928, when landing at Woolston in Southampton, England.[53]
She flew the Avro Avian 594 Avian III, SN: R3/AV/101 owned by
Lady Mary Heath and later purchased the aircraft
and had it shipped back to the United States (where it was assigned "unlicensed
aircraft identification mark" 7083).[54]
When the Stultz, Gordon and Earhart flight crew returned to the United
States, they were greeted with a ticker-tape parade in New York followed by a
reception with President Calvin Coolidge at the White
House.
Celebrity image
Earhart walking with President Hoover in the grounds of the White
House on January 2, 1932
Trading on her physical resemblance to Lindbergh,[55] whom the
press had dubbed "Lucky Lindy," some newspapers and magazines began referring to
Earhart as "Lady Lindy."[56][N 6] The United
Press was more grandiloquent; to them, Earhart was the reigning
"Queen of the Air."[57] Immediately
after her return to the United States, she undertook an exhausting lecture tour
(1928–1929). Meanwhile, Putnam had undertaken to heavily promote her in a
campaign including publishing a book she authored, a series of new lecture tours
and using pictures of her in mass market endorsements for products including
luggage, Lucky Strike cigarettes (this caused image
problems for her, with McCall's magazine retracting an offer)[58] and women's
clothing and sportswear. The money that she made with "Lucky Strike" had been
earmarked for a $1,500 donation to Commander Richard Byrd's imminent South Pole
expedition.[58]
The marketing campaign by both Earhart and Putnam was successful in
establishing the Earhart mystique in the public psyche.[59] Rather than
simply endorsing the products, Earhart actively became involved in the
promotions, especially in women's fashions. For a number of years she had sewn
her own clothes, but the "active living" lines that were sold in 50 stores such
as Macy's in metropolitan areas were an expression
of a new Earhart image. Her concept of simple, natural lines matched with
wrinkle-proof, washable materials was the embodiment of a sleek, purposeful but
feminine "A.E." (the familiar name she went by with family and friends).[57][60] The luggage
line that she promoted (marketed as Modernaire Earhart Luggage) also bore her
unmistakable stamp.
A wide range of promotional items would appear bearing the Earhart name.
Promoting
aviation
Studio portrait of Amelia Earhart, c. 1932. Putnam specifically instructed
Earhart to disguise a "gap-toothed" smile by keeping her mouth closed in
formal photographs.
The celebrity endorsements would help Earhart finance her flying.[61] Accepting a
position as associate editor at Cosmopolitan magazine, she turned this
forum into an opportunity to campaign for greater public acceptance of aviation,
especially focusing on the role of women entering the field.[62] In 1929,
Earhart was among the first aviators to promote commercial air travel through
the development of a passenger airline service; along with Charles Lindbergh,
she represented Transcontinental Air Transport (TAT) and invested
time and money in setting up the first regional shuttle service between New York
and Washington, DC. (TAT later became TWA). She was a Vice President of National
Airways, which conducted the flying operations of the Boston-Maine Airways and
several other airlines in the northeast.[63] By 1940, it
had become Northeast Airlines.
Competitive
flying
Although Earhart had gained fame for her transatlantic flight, she endeavored
to set an "untarnished" record of her own.[64]
Shortly after her return, piloting Avian 7083, she set off on her first
long solo flight which occurred just as her name was coming into the national
spotlight. By making the trip in August 1928, Earhart became the first woman to
fly solo across the North American continent and back.[65] Gradually
her piloting skills and professionalism grew, as acknowledged by experienced
professional pilots who flew with her. General Leigh Wade flew with Earhart in
1929: "She was a born flier, with a delicate touch on the stick."[66]
Earhart subsequently made her first attempt at competitive air racing in 1929
during the first Santa Monica-to-Cleveland Women's Air Derby (later nicknamed the "Powder Puff Derby" by Will
Rogers). During the race, at the last intermediate stop before
the finish in Cleveland, Earhart and her friend Ruth
Nichols were tied for first place. Nichols was to take off right
before Earhart, but her aircraft hit a tractor at the end of the runway and
flipped over. Instead of taking off, Earhart ran to the wrecked aircraft and
dragged her friend out. Only when she was sure that Nichols was uninjured did
Earhart take off for Cleveland but due to the time lost, she finished third. Her
courageous act was symbolic of Earhart's selflessness; typically, she rarely
referred to the incident in later years.[67]
In 1930, Earhart became an official of the National Aeronautic Association where she
actively promoted the establishment of separate women's records and was
instrumental in the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)
accepting a similar international standard.[62] In 1931,
flying a Pitcairn PCA-2 autogyro, she set a world altitude record of
18,415 feet (5,613 m) in a borrowed company machine.[68]
While to a reader today it might seem that Earhart was engaged in flying
"stunts," she was, with other female flyers, crucial to making the American
public "air minded" and convincing them that "aviation was no longer just for
daredevils and supermen."[69]
During this period, Earhart became involved with The Ninety-Nines, an organization of female pilots
providing moral support and advancing the cause of women in aviation. She had
called a meeting of female pilots in 1929 following the Women's Air Derby. She
suggested the name based on the number of the charter members; she later became
the organization's first president in 1930.[6] Earhart was a
vigorous advocate for female pilots and when the 1934 Bendix Trophy Race banned women, she openly
refused to fly screen actress Mary Pickford to Cleveland to open the races.[70]
Marriage
For a while Earhart was engaged to Samuel Chapman, a chemical engineer from
Boston, breaking off her engagement on November 23, 1928.[71] During the
same period, Earhart and Putnam had spent a great deal of time together, leading
to intimacy. George P. Putnam, who was known as GP, was
divorced in 1929 and sought out Earhart, proposing to her six times before she
finally agreed.[N 7] After
substantial hesitation on her part, they married on February 7, 1931, in
Putnam's mother's house in Noank, Connecticut. Earhart referred to her marriage
as a "partnership" with "dual control." In a letter written to Putnam and hand
delivered to him on the day of the wedding, she wrote, "I want you to understand
I shall not hold you to any midaevil [sic] code of faithfulness to me nor shall I
consider myself bound to you similarly."[N 8][74][75]
Earhart's ideas on marriage were liberal for the time as she believed in
equal responsibilities for both "breadwinners" and pointedly kept her own name
rather than being referred to as Mrs. Putnam. When The New York Times,
per the rules of its stylebook, insisted on referring to her as Mrs. Putnam, she
laughed it off. GP also learned quite soon that he would be called "Mr.
Earhart."[76] There was no
honeymoon for the newlyweds as Earhart was involved in a nine-day cross-country
tour promoting autogyros and the tour sponsor, Beech-Nut chewing gum. Although Earhart and
Putnam had no children, he had two sons by his previous marriage to Dorothy
Binney (1888–1982),[77] a chemical
heiress whose father's company, Binney & Smith, invented Crayola crayons:[78]
the explorer and writer David Binney Putnam (1913–1992) and George Palmer
Putnam, Jr. (born 1921).[79] Earhart was
especially fond of David who frequently visited his father at their family home
in Rye, New York. George had contracted polio
shortly after his parents' separation and was unable to visit as often.
1932
transatlantic solo flight
Amelia Earhart Museum, Derry
Lockheed Vega 5B flown by Amelia Earhart as seen
on display at the National Air and Space Museum
Monument in Harbour Grace, Newfoundland and
Labrador
At the age of 34, on the morning of May 20, 1932, Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland
with the latest copy of a local newspaper (the dated copy was intended to
confirm the date of the flight). She intended to fly to Paris in her single
engine Lockheed Vega 5B to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight.[80][N 9] Her
technical advisor for the flight was famed Norwegian American aviator Bernt
Balchen who helped prepare her aircraft. He also played the role
of "decoy" for the press as he was ostensibly preparing Earhart's Vega for his
own Arctic flight.[N 10] After a
flight lasting 14 hours, 56 minutes during which she contended with strong
northerly winds, icy conditions and mechanical problems, Earhart landed in a
pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland. The landing was witnessed by
Cecil King and T. Sawyer. When a farm hand asked, "Have you flown far?" Earhart
replied, "From America."[83] The site now
is the home of a small museum, the Amelia Earhart Centre.[84]
As the first woman to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic, Earhart received
the Distinguished Flying Cross from Congress,
the Cross of Knight of the Legion of Honor from the French
Government and the Gold Medal of the National
Geographic Society from President Herbert Hoover. As her fame grew, she developed
friendships with many people in high offices, most notably Eleanor Roosevelt, the First
Lady from 1933 to 1945. Roosevelt shared many of Earhart's
interests and passions, especially women's causes. After flying with Earhart,
Roosevelt obtained a student permit but did not pursue her plans to learn to
fly. The two friends communicated frequently throughout their lives.[N 11] Another
famous flyer, Jacqueline Cochran, considered Earhart's greatest
rival by both media and the public, also became a confidante and friend during
this period.[86]
Other solo
flights
On January 11, 1935, Earhart became the first person to fly solo from Honolulu,
Hawaii to Oakland, California. Although this transoceanic
flight had been attempted by many others, most notably by the unfortunate
participants in the 1927 Dole Air Race which had reversed the route, her
trailblazing[87] flight had
been mainly routine, with no mechanical breakdowns. In her final hours, she even
relaxed and listened to "the broadcast of the Metropolitan Opera from New
York."[87]
Earhart and "old Bessie" Vega 5b c. 1935
That year, once more flying her faithful Vega which Earhart had tagged "old
Bessie, the fire horse,"[N 12] she soloed
from Los Angeles to Mexico City on April 19. The next record attempt was a
nonstop flight from Mexico City to New York. Setting off on May 8, her flight
was uneventful although the large crowds that greeted her at Newark, New Jersey, were a concern[89] as she had
to be careful not to taxi into the throng.
Earhart again participated in long-distance air racing, placing fifth in the
1935 Bendix Trophy Race, the best result she could
manage considering that her stock Lockheed Vega topping out at 195 mph
(314 km/h) was outclassed by purpose-built air racers which reached more
than 300 mph (480 km/h).[90]
The race had been a particularly difficult one as one competitor, Cecil Allen,
died in a fiery takeoff mishap and rival Jacqueline Cochran was forced to retire
due to mechanical problems, the "blinding fog",[91] and violent
thunderstorms that plagued the race.
Between 1930 and 1935, Earhart had set seven women's speed and distance
aviation records in a variety of aircraft including the Kinner Airster, Lockheed
Vega, and Pitcairn Autogiro. By 1935, recognizing the limitations of her "lovely
red Vega" in long, transoceanic flights, Earhart contemplated, in her own words,
a new "prize... one flight which I most wanted to attempt – a circumnavigation
of the globe as near its waistline as could be."[92]
For the new venture, she would need a new aircraft.
Move to
California
While Earhart was away on a speaking tour in late November 1934, a fire broke
out at the Putnam residence in Rye destroying many family treasures and
Earhart's personal mementos.[93] As Putnam
had already sold his interest in the New York based publishing company to his
cousin, Palmer, following the fire the couple decided to
move to the West Coast where Putnam took up his new position as head of the
editorial board of Paramount Pictures in North Hollywood.[94][N 13] While
speaking in California in late 1934, Earhart had contacted Hollywood "stunt"
pilot Paul
Mantz in order to improve her flying, focusing especially on
long-distance flying in her Vega and wanted to move closer to him.
At Earhart's urging, Putnam purchased a small house in June 1935 adjacent to
the clubhouse of the Lakeside Golf Club in Toluca
Lake, a San Fernando Valley celebrity enclave community
nestled between the Warner Brothers and Universal Pictures studio complexes where they
had earlier rented a temporary residence.[95][96] Earhart and
Putnam would not move in immediately, however, as they decided to very
considerably remodel and enlarge the existing small structure to meet their
needs, thus delaying their occupation of their new home for some months.[97]
In September 1935, Earhart and Mantz formally established a business
partnership they had been considering since late 1934 by creating the
short-lived Earhart-Mantz Flying School which Mantz controlled and operated
through his aviation company, United Air Services, located at the Burbank Airport about five miles from Earhart's
Toluca Lake home. Putnam handled publicity for the school which primarily taught
instrument flying using Link Trainers.[98]
1937 world
flight
Amelia Earhart and Lockheed Electra 10E NR 16020, c.
1937
Amelia Earhart's Lockheed Electra 10E. During its modification,
the aircraft had most of the cabin windows blanked out and had specially fitted
fuselage fuel tanks.
Planning
Earhart joined the faculty of Purdue University in 1935 as a visiting faculty
member to counsel women on careers and as a technical advisor to the Department
of Aeronautics.[91][N 14] Early in
1936, Earhart started to plan a round-the-world flight. Not the first to circle
the globe, it would be the longest at 29,000 miles (47,000 km), following a
grueling equatorial route. With financing from Purdue,[N
15] in July 1936, a Lockheed
Electra 10E was built at Lockheed Aircraft Company to her specifications
which included extensive modifications to the fuselage to incorporate a large
fuel tank.[100] Earhart
dubbed the twin engine monoplane airliner her "flying laboratory" and hangared
it at Mantz's United Air Services located just across the airfield from
Lockheed's Burbank, California plant in which it had been
built.[101]
Although the Electra was publicized as a "flying laboratory", little useful
science was planned and the flight was arranged around Earhart's intention to
circumnavigate the globe along with gathering raw material and public attention
for her next book.[102] Her first
choice as navigator was Captain Harry Manning, who had been the captain of the
President Roosevelt, the ship that had
brought Earhart back from Europe in 1928.[99]
Through contacts in the Los Angeles aviation community, Fred
Noonan was subsequently chosen as a second navigator because there were significant
additional factors which had to be dealt with while using celestial navigation
for aircraft.[103][104] He had vast
experience in both marine (he was a licensed ship's captain) and flight navigation. Noonan had recently left Pan Am, where he established most of the
company's China Clipper seaplane routes across the Pacific.
Noonan had also been responsible for training Pan American's navigators for the
route between San Francisco and Manila.[105][N 16] The
original plans were for Noonan to navigate from Hawaii to Howland Island, a
particularly difficult portion of the flight; then Manning would continue with
Earhart to Australia and she would proceed on her own for the remainder of the
project.
First attempt
L–R, Paul
Mantz, Amelia Earhart, Harry Manning and Fred
Noonan, Oakland, California, March 17,
1937
On St. Patrick's Day, March 17, 1937, Earhart and
her crew flew the first leg from Oakland, California to Honolulu, Hawaii. In addition to Earhart and
Noonan, Harry Manning and Mantz (who was acting as Earhart's technical advisor)
were on board. Due to lubrication and galling problems with the propeller hubs'
variable pitch mechanisms, the aircraft needed servicing in Hawaii. Ultimately,
the Electra ended up at the United States Navy's Luke Field on Ford
Island in Pearl Harbor. The flight resumed three days later
from Luke Field with Earhart, Noonan and Manning on board. During the takeoff
run, Earhart ground-looped, circumstances of which remain
controversial. Some witnesses at Luke Field including the Associated Press
journalist on the scene said they saw a tire blow.[106] Earhart
thought either the Electra's right tire had blown and/or the right landing gear
had collapsed. Some sources, including Mantz, cited pilot error.[106]
With the aircraft severely damaged, the flight was called off and the
aircraft was shipped by sea to the Lockheed Burbank facility for repairs.[107]
Second attempt
The planned flight route.
While the Electra was being repaired Earhart and Putnam secured additional
funds and prepared for a second attempt. This time flying west to east, the
second attempt began with an unpublicized flight from Oakland to Miami, Florida, and after arriving there Earhart
publicly announced her plans to circumnavigate the globe. The flight's opposite
direction was partly the result of changes in global wind and weather patterns
along the planned route since the earlier attempt. On this second flight, Fred
Noonan was Earhart's only crew member. The pair departed Miami on June 1 and
after numerous stops in South America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, arrived
at Lae,
New Guinea, on June 29, 1937. At this stage about
22,000 miles (35,000 km) of the journey had been completed. The remaining
7,000 miles (11,000 km) would be over the Pacific.
Earhart's 1937 Flight Route
[show]Date
Departure City[108]
Arrival City
Nautical
miles
Notes[109]
May 20, 1937
Oakland,
California
Burbank,
California
283
May 21, 1937
Burbank, California
Tucson,
Arizona
393
May 22, 1937
Tucson, Arizona
New
Orleans, Louisiana
1070
May 23, 1937
New Orleans, Louisiana
Miami,
Florida
586
June 1, 1937
Miami, Florida
San
Juan, Puerto Rico
908
June 2, 1937
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Caripito,
Venezuela
492
out of Luis
Muñoz Marín International Airport
June 3, 1937
Caripito, Venezuela
Paramaribo,
Surinam
610
June 4, 1937
Paramaribo, Surinam
Fortaleza,
Brazil
1142
June 5, 1937
Fortaleza, Brazil
Natal,
Brazil
235
June 7, 1937
Natal, Brazil
Saint-Louis,
Senegal
1727
Transatlantic
flight
June 8, 1937
Saint-Louis, Senegal
Dakar,
Senegal
100
June 10, 1937
Dakar, Senegal
Gao, French Sudan
1016
June 11, 1937
Gao, French Sudan
Fort-Lamy,
F.E.
Africa
910
June 12, 1937
Fort-Lamy, F.E. Africa
El
Fasher, Sudan
610
June 13, 1937
El Fasher, Sudan
Khartoum,
Sudan
437
June 13, 1937
Khartoum, Sudan
Massawa,
Ethiopia
400
June 14, 1937
Massawa, Ethiopia
Assab, Italian
Eritria
241
June 15, 1937
Assab, Italian Eritria
Karachi,
India
1627
first ever non-stop flight from the Red Sea to India
June 17, 1937
Karachi, India
Calcutta,
India
1178
June 18, 1937
Calcutta, India
Akyab,
Burma
291
June 19, 1937
Akyab, Burma
Rangoon,
Burma
268
June 20, 1937
Rangoon, Burma
Bangkok,
Siam
315
June 20, 1937
Bangkok, Siam
Singapore, Straits
Settlements
780
June 21, 1937
Singapore, Straits Settlements
Bandoeng,
Dutch East Indies
541
June 25, 1937
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies
Surabaya,
Dutch East Indies
310
delayed due to monsoon
June 25, 1937
Surabaya, Dutch East Indies
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies
310
returned for repairs, Earhart ill with dysentery
June 26, 1937
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies
Surabaya, Dutch East Indies
310
June 27, 1937
Surabaya, Dutch East Indies
Koepang,
Dutch East Indies
668
June 28, 1937
Koepang, Dutch East Indies
Darwin,
Australia
445
direction finder repaired, parachutes removed and sent home
June 29, 1937
Darwin, Australia
Lae,
Papua New Guinea
1012
July 2, 1937
Lae, Papua New Guinea
Howland Island
2556
did not arrive
July 3, 1937
Howland Island
Honolulu,
Oahu
1900
planned leg
July 4, 1937
Honolulu, Oahu
Oakland, California
2400
planned leg
Departure from
Lae
On July 2, 1937, midnight GMT, Earhart and Noonan took off from Lae in the
heavily loaded Electra. Their intended destination was Howland Island, a flat sliver of land
6,500 ft (2,000 m) long and 1,600 ft (500 m) wide, 10 ft (3 m)
high and 2,556 miles (4,113 km) away. Their last known position report was
near the Nukumanu Islands, about 800 miles (1,300 km)
into the flight. The USCGC Itasca was on station at Howland,
assigned to communicate with Earhart's Lockheed Electra 10E and guide them to
the island once they arrived in the vicinity.
Final
approach to Howland Island
Through a series of misunderstandings or errors (the details of which are
still controversial), the final approach to Howland Island using radio navigation was not successful. Fred Noonan
had earlier written about problems affecting the accuracy of radio direction
finding in navigation.[N 17] Some
sources have noted Earhart's apparent lack of understanding of her Bendix
direction-finding loop antenna, which at the time was very new technology.
Another cited cause of possible confusion was that the Itasca and Earhart
planned their communication schedule using time systems set a half hour apart
(with Earhart using Greenwich Civil Time (GCT) and the Itasca under a
Naval time zone designation system).[110]
Motion picture evidence from Lae suggests that an antenna mounted underneath the fuselage may have
been torn off from the fuel-heavy Electra during taxi or takeoff from Lae's turf
runway, though no antenna was reported found at Lae. Don Dwiggins, in his
biography of Paul Mantz (who assisted Earhart and Noonan in their flight
planning), noted that the aviators had cut off their long-wire antenna, due to
the annoyance of having to crank it back into the aircraft after each use.
Radio signals
Earhart in the Electra cockpit, c. 1936
During Earhart and Noonan's approach to Howland Island the Itasca
received strong and clear voice transmissions from Earhart identifying as KHAQQ
but she apparently was unable to hear voice transmissions from the ship. At
7:42 am on July 2, Earhart radioed "We must be on you, but cannot see
you—but gas is running low. Have been unable to reach you by radio. We are
flying at 1,000 feet." Her 7:58 am transmission said she couldn't hear the
Itasca and asked them to send voice signals so she could try to take a
radio bearing (this transmission was reported by the Itasca as the
loudest possible signal, indicating Earhart and Noonan were in the immediate
area). They couldn't send voice at the frequency she asked for, so Morse code
signals were sent instead. Earhart acknowledged receiving these but said she was
unable to determine their direction.[111]
In her last known transmission at 8:43 am Earhart broadcast "We are on
the line 157 337. We will repeat this message. We will repeat this on 6210
kilocycles. Wait." However, a few moments later she was back on the same
frequency (3105 kHz) with a transmission which was logged as a
"questionable": "We are running on line north and south."[112] Earhart's
transmissions seemed to indicate she and Noonan believed they had reached
Howland's charted position, which was incorrect by about five nautical miles
(10 km). The Itasca used her oil-fired boilers to generate smoke for
a period of time but the fliers apparently did not see it. The many scattered
clouds in the area around Howland Island have also been cited as a problem:
their dark shadows on the ocean surface may have been almost indistinguishable
from the island's subdued and very flat profile.
Whether any post-loss radio signals were received from Earhart and Noonan
remains controversial. If transmissions were received from the Electra, most if
not all were weak and hopelessly garbled. Earhart's voice transmissions to
Howland were on 3105 kHz, a frequency restricted to aviation use in the
United States by the FCC.[N 18] This
frequency was not thought to be fit for broadcasts over great distances. When
Earhart was at cruising altitude and midway between Lae and Howland (over 1,000
miles (1,600 km) from each) neither station heard her scheduled
transmission at 0815 GCT.[114] Moreover,
the 50-watt transmitter used by Earhart was attached to a
less-than-optimum-length V-type antenna.[115][116][N 19]
The last voice transmission received on Howland Island from Earhart indicated
she and Noonan were flying along a line of position (taken from a "sun line"
running on 157–337 degrees) which Noonan would have calculated and drawn on a
chart as passing through Howland.[117][N 20] After all
contact was lost with Howland Island, attempts were made to reach the flyers
with both voice and Morse code transmissions. Operators across the
Pacific and the United States may have heard signals from the downed Electra but
these were unintelligible or weak.[118][N 21]
Some of these reports of transmissions were later determined to be hoaxes but others were deemed authentic. Bearings
taken by Pan American Airways stations suggested signals
originating from several locations, including Gardner Island.[119][120] It was
noted at the time that if these signals were from Earhart and Noonan, they must
have been on land with the aircraft since water would have otherwise shorted out
the Electra's electrical system.[121][N 22][122][N 23] Sporadic
signals were reported for four or five days after the disappearance but none
yielded any understandable information.[123][N 24] The
captain of the USS Colorado later said "There was no doubt many
stations were calling the Earhart plane on the plane's frequency, some by voice
and others by signals. All of these added to the confusion and doubtfulness of
the authenticity of the reports."[124]
Search efforts
Beginning approximately one hour after Earhart's last recorded message, the
USCGC Itasca undertook an ultimately unsuccessful search north and west
of Howland Island based on initial assumptions about transmissions from the
aircraft. The United States Navy soon joined the search and
over a period of about three days sent available resources to the search area in
the vicinity of Howland Island. The initial search by the Itasca involved
running up the 157/337 line of position to the NNW from Howland Island. The
Itasca then searched the area to the immediate NE of the island,
corresponding to the area, yet wider than the area searched to the NW. Based on
bearings of several supposed Earhart radio transmissions, some of the search
efforts were directed to a specific position on a line of 281 degrees
(approximately northwest) from Howland Island without evidence of the
flyers.[125] Four days
after Earhart's last verified radio transmission, on July 6, 1937, the captain
of the battleship Colorado received orders from the Commandant, Fourteenth Naval District to take over all naval
and coast guard units to coordinate search efforts.[125]
AP Photo of Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan, Los Angeles, May
1937
Later search efforts were directed to the Phoenix Islands south of Howland Island.[126] A week
after the disappearance, naval aircraft from the Colorado flew over
several islands in the group including Gardner Island (now called Nikumaroro), which had been uninhabited for over
40 years. The subsequent report on Gardner read: "Here signs of recent
habitation were clearly visible but repeated circling and zooming failed to
elicit any answering wave from possible inhabitants and it was finally taken for
granted that none were there... At the western end of the island a tramp
steamer (of about 4000 tons)... lay high and almost dry head onto
the coral beach with her back broken in two places. The lagoon at Gardner looked
sufficiently deep and certainly large enough so that a seaplane or even an
airboat could have landed or takenoff [sic] in any direction with little if any
difficulty. Given a chance, it is believed that Miss Earhart could have landed
her aircraft in this lagoon and swum or waded ashore."[N
25] They also found that Gardner's shape and
size as recorded on charts were wholly inaccurate. Other Navy search efforts
were again directed north, west and southwest of Howland Island, based on a
possibility the Electra had ditched in the ocean, was afloat, or that the
aviators were in an emergency raft.[128]
The official search efforts lasted until July 19, 1937.[129] At
$4 million, the air and sea search by the Navy and Coast Guard was the most costly and intensive in
U.S. history up to that time but search and rescue techniques during the era were
rudimentary and some of the search was based on erroneous assumptions and flawed
information. Official reporting of the search effort was influenced by
individuals wary about how their roles in looking for an American hero might be
reported by the press.[130][N 26] Despite an
unprecedented search by the United States Navy and Coast Guard no physical
evidence of Earhart, Noonan or the Electra 10E was found. The aircraft carrier
USS Lexington, the Colorado, and the
Itasca (and even two Japanese ships, the oceanographic survey vessel
Koshu and auxiliary seaplane tender Kamoi) searched for six–seven days each,
covering 150,000 square miles (390,000 km2).[131][132]
Immediately after the end of the official search, Putnam financed a private
search by local authorities of nearby Pacific islands and waters, concentrating
on the Gilberts. In late July 1937, Putnam chartered two small boats and while
he remained in the United States, directed a search of the Phoenix Islands, Christmas (Kiritimati) Island, Fanning
(Tabuaeran) Island, the Gilbert Islands and the Marshall Islands, but no trace of the Electra or its occupants was
found.[133]
Back in the United States, Putnam acted to become the trustee of Earhart's
estate so that he could pay for the searches and related bills. In probate court
in Los Angeles, Putnam requested to have the "declared
death in absentia" seven-year waiting period waived so
that he could manage Earhart's finances. As a result, Earhart was declared
legally dead on January 5, 1939.[134]
Theories on Earhart's
disappearance
Many theories emerged after the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan. Two
possibilities concerning the flyers' fate have prevailed among researchers and
historians.
Crash and sink
theory
Many researchers believe the Electra ran out of fuel and that Earhart and
Noonan ditched at sea. Navigator and aeronautical engineer Elgen
Long and his wife Marie K. Long devoted 35 years of exhaustive
research to the "crash and sink" theory, which is the most widely accepted
explanation for the disappearance.[135]
Capt. Laurance F. Safford, USN, who was responsible for
the interwar Mid Pacific Strategic Direction Finding Net, and the decoding of
the Japanese PURPLE cipher messages for the attack on Pearl
Harbor, began a lengthy analysis of the Earhart flight during the 1970s. His
research included the intricate radio transmission documentation. Safford came
to the conclusion, "poor planning, worse execution."[136] Rear
Admiral Richard R. Black, USN, who was in administrative charge of the Howland
Island airstrip and was present in the radio room on the Itasca, asserted
in 1982 that "the Electra went into the sea about 10 am, July 2, 1937 not
far from Howland".[136] British
aviation historian Roy Nesbit interpreted evidence in contemporary accounts and
Putnam's correspondence and concluded Earhart's Electra was not fully fueled at
Lae.[137] William L.
Polhemous, the navigator on Ann Pellegreno's 1967 flight which followed Earhart
and Noonan's original flight path, studied navigational tables for July 2, 1937
and thought Noonan may have miscalculated the "single line approach" intended to
"hit" Howland.[138]
David Jourdan, a former Navy submariner and ocean engineer specializing in
deep-sea recoveries, has claimed any transmissions attributed to Gardner Island
were false. Through his company Nauticos he extensively searched a
1,200-square-mile (3,100 km2) quadrant north and west of Howland
Island during two deep-sea sonar expeditions (2002 and 2006, total cost
$4.5 million) and found nothing. The search locations were derived from the
line of position (157–337) broadcast by Earhart on July 2, 1937.[110]
Nevertheless, Elgen Long's interpretations have led Jourdan to conclude, "The
analysis of all the data we have – the fuel analysis, the radio calls, other
things – tells me she went into the water off Howland."[110] Earhart's
stepson George Palmer Putnam Jr. has been quoted as saying he believes "the
plane just ran out of gas."[139] Susan
Butler, author of the "definitive"[140]
Earhart biography East to the Dawn, says she thinks the aircraft went
into the ocean out of sight of Howland Island and rests on the seafloor at a
depth of 17,000 feet (5 km).[141]
Tom D. Crouch, Senior Curator of the National Air and Space Museum, has said the
Earhart/Noonan Electra is "18,000 ft. down" and may even yield a range of
artifacts that could rival the finds of the Titanic, adding, "... the mystery is part of
what keeps us interested. In part, we remember her because she's our favorite
missing person."[110]
Gardner Island
hypothesis
Immediately after Earhart and Noonan's disappearance, the U.S. Navy, Paul
Mantz, and Earhart's mother (who convinced G.P. Putnam to undertake a search in
the Phoenix Group)[142] all
expressed belief the flight had ended in the Phoenix Islands, now part of the Republic
of Kiribati, some 350 miles (560 km) southeast of Howland
Island. Ultimately, Gardner Island (now Nikumaroro), larger than Howland and much more
visible from the air, was identified as a viable location for landing an
aircraft running out of fuel.
In 1988, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) began an investigation[143] of the
Earhart/Noonan disappearance and since then has sent ten[144] research
expeditions to Gardner Island/Nikumaroro. They have suggested Earhart and Noonan
may have flown without further radio transmissions[145]
for two and a half hours along the line of position Earhart noted in her last
transmission received at Howland, then found then-uninhabited Gardner Island,
landed the Electra on an extensive reef flat near the wreck of a large freighter
(the SS Norwich City) on the northwest
side of the atoll, and ultimately perished.
During World War II, US
Coast Guard LORAN Unit 92, a radio navigation station built
in the summer and fall of 1944, and operational from mid-November 1944 until
mid-May 1945, was located on Gardner Island's southeast end. Dozens of U.S.
Coast Guard personnel were involved in its construction and operation, but were
mostly forbidden from leaving the small base or having contact with the
Gilbertese colonists then on the island, and found no artifacts known to relate
to Earhart.[146]
Nevertheless, in July 2007, an editor at Avionews in Rome compared the Gardner Island
hypothesis to other non-crash-and-sink theories and called it the "most
confirmed" of them.[147]
TIGHAR's research has produced a range of documented archaeological and
anecdotal evidence supporting this hypothesis.[148][149] For
example, in 1940, Gerald Gallagher, a British colonial officer and
licensed pilot, radioed his superiors to inform them that he had found a "skeleton
... possibly that of a woman," along with an old-fashioned sextant box, under a tree on the island's
southeast corner. He was ordered to send the remains to Fiji, where in 1941, British colonial authorities
took detailed measurements of the bones and concluded they were from a male
about 5 ft 5 in tall.[150] In 1998,
however, an analysis of the measurement data by forensic anthropologists did not
confirm the original findings, concluding instead, that the skeleton had
belonged to a "tall white female of northern European ancestry." The bones
themselves were misplaced in Fiji long ago and have not been found.[151]
Artifacts discovered by TIGHAR on Nikumaroro have included improvised tools,
an aluminum panel (possibly from an Electra), an oddly cut piece of clear
Plexiglas the same thickness and curvature of an Electra window and a size 9
Cat's Paw heel dating from the 1930s which resembles Earhart's footwear in world
flight photos.[152][N 27] The
evidence remains circumstantial, but Earhart's surviving stepson, George Putnam
Jr., has expressed support for TIGHAR's research.[153]
In 2007, a TIGHAR expedition visited Nikumaroro searching for unambiguously
identifiable aircraft artifacts and DNA. The group included engineers, technical
experts, archaeologists, anthropologists, and researchers.[154] They found
artifacts of uncertain origin on the weather-ravaged atoll, including bronze
bearings which may have belonged to Earhart's aircraft and a zipper pull which
might have come from her flight suit.[155]
In 2010, the research group said it had found bones that appeared to be part of
a human finger. Subsequent DNA testing at the University
of Oklahoma proved inconclusive as to whether the bone fragments
were from a human or from a sea turtle.[156]
In July 2012, TIGHAR conducted an underwater expedition off the northwest
reef of Nikumaroro, using sonar mapping. Some of the sonar images suggested a
possible wreckage site,[157] although
Ric Gillespie, executive director of TIGHAR, cautioned that most of the
Electra's parts would likely have disintegrated after 75 years in sea water.[158]
Nevertheless, in May 2013, TIGHAR announced that professional analysis of a
32-foot (9.8 m) anomaly in the sonar images showed what could possibly be
the aircraft.[159][160]
Myths, legends
and claims
The unresolved circumstances of Earhart's disappearance, along with her fame,
attracted a great body of other claims relating to her last flight, all of which
have been generally dismissed for lack of verifiable evidence. Several
unsupported theories have become well known in popular culture.
Spies for FDR
A World
War II-era movie called Flight for Freedom (1943) starring Rosalind Russell and Fred
MacMurray furthered a myth that Earhart was spying on the Japanese in the Pacific at the
request of the Franklin Roosevelt administration.[148][N 28] By 1949,
both the United Press and U.S. Army Intelligence had
concluded this rumor was groundless. Jackie Cochran, another pioneering aviator and
one of Earhart's friends, made a postwar search of numerous files in Japan and
was convinced the Japanese were not involved in Earhart's disappearance.[161]
Saipan claims
In 1966, CBS Correspondent Fred Goerner published a book
claiming Earhart and Noonan were captured and executed when their aircraft
crashed on the island of Saipan, part of the Mariana Islands archipelago, while it was under
Japanese occupation.[162][163][N 29][164][N 30] In 2009,
an Earhart relative stated that the pair died in Japanese custody, citing
unnamed witnesses including Japanese troops and Saipan natives.[165] He said
that the Japanese cut the valuable Lockheed aircraft into scrap and threw the
pieces into the ocean.[165]
Thomas E. Devine (who served in a postal Army unit) wrote Eyewitness: The
Amelia Earhart Incident which includes a letter from the daughter of a
Japanese police official who claimed her father was responsible for Earhart's
execution.[citation needed]
Former U.S. Marine Robert Wallack claimed he and other
Marines opened a safe on Saipan and found Earhart's briefcase. Former U.S.
Marine Earskin J. Nabers claimed that while serving as a wireless operator on
Saipan in 1944, he decoded a message from naval officials which said Earhart's
aircraft had been found at the airfield in the village of As Lito, that he
was later ordered to guard the aircraft, and then witnessed its destruction.[citation needed] In 1990, the NBC-TV series Unsolved Mysteries broadcast an interview
with a Saipanese woman who claimed to have witnessed Earhart and Noonan's
execution by Japanese soldiers. No independent confirmation or support has ever
emerged for any of these claims.[166]
Purported photographs of Earhart during her captivity have been identified as
either fraudulent or having been taken before her final flight.[167]
Since the end of World War II, a location on Tinian, which is five miles (eight km) southwest
of Saipan, had been rumoured to be the grave of the two aviators. In 2004, a
scientifically supported archaeological dig at the site failed to turn up any
bones.[168]
Tokyo Rose rumor
A rumor which claimed that Earhart had made propaganda radio broadcasts as
one of the many women compelled to serve as Tokyo Rose was investigated closely by George
Putnam. According to several biographies of Earhart, Putnam investigated this
rumor personally but after listening to many recordings of numerous Tokyo Roses,
he did not recognize her voice among them.[169]
New Britain
The theory that Earhart may have turned back mid-flight has been posited. She
would then have tried to reach the airfield at Rabaul, New Britain (northeast of mainland Papua New Guinea), approximately 2,200 miles
(3,500 km) from Howland.[170]
In 1990, Donald Angwin, a veteran of the Australian Army's World War II campaign
in New Britain, contacted researchers to suggest that a wrecked
aircraft he had witnessed in jungle about 40 miles (64 km) southwest of
Rabaul, on April 17, 1945, may have been Earhart's Electra.[171] Angwin, who
was a corporal in the 11th Battalion at the time,[172] reported
that he and other members of a forward patrol on Japanese-occupied New Britain
had found a wrecked twin-engined, unpainted all-metal aircraft. The soldiers
recorded a rough position on a map, along with serial numbers seen on the
wreckage. While the map was located in the possession of another veteran in
1993, subsequent searches of the area indicated failed to find a wreck.[171]
While Angwin died in 2001, David Billings, an Australian aircraft engineer,
has continued to investigate his theory. Billings claims that the serial numbers
written on the map, "600H/P S3HI C/N1055", represent:
These would be consistent with a Lockheed Electra 10E, such as that flown by
Earhart, although they do not contain enough information to identify the wreck
in question as NR16020.[171]
Pacific Wrecks, a website that documents World War II-era aircraft
crash sites, notes that no Electra has been reported lost in or around Papua New
Guinea. Gillespie wrote that the 2,000-mile (3,200 km) distance from
Earhart's last known position to New Britain was impossible for the aircraft to
fly, requiring more than 13 hours of flight when there was only 4 hours of fuel
remaining.[173]
Assuming another
identity
In November 2006, the National Geographic Channel aired episode two of
the Undiscovered History series about a claim that Earhart survived the
world flight, moved to New Jersey, changed her name, remarried and
became Irene Craigmile Bolam. This claim had originally
been raised in the book Amelia Earhart Lives (1970) by author Joe Klaas,
based on the research of Major Joseph Gervais. Irene Bolam, who had been a
banker in New York during the 1940s, denied being Earhart, filed a lawsuit
requesting $1.5 million in damages and submitted a lengthy affidavit in which she refuted the claims. The
book's publisher, McGraw-Hill, withdrew the book from the market
shortly after it was released and court records indicate that they made an
out-of-court settlement with her.[174][175]
Subsequently, Bolam's personal life history was thoroughly documented by
researchers, eliminating any possibility she was Earhart. Kevin Richlin, a
professional criminal forensic expert hired by National Geographic, studied photographs of
both women and cited many measurable facial differences between Earhart and
Bolam.[176]
Possible Wreckage
Found
In July of 2013, TIGHAR (The International Group for Historic Aircraft
Recovery) detected an anomaly using side scan sonar off the coast of Nikumaroro
island, an uninhabited tropical atoll in the southwestern Pacific republic of
Kiribati which was the target of TIGHAR's underwater search in 2012. Upon
review, it was determined that the anomaly resembles that of a crashed Lockheed
Electra, the type of plane which Earhart was flying. TIGHAR believes that they
have found evidence that the plane crash landed on the shallow reef before being
washed to its current position a few hundred yards off the reef itself. Past
expeditions on the island have turned up some curious artifacts, in particular
1930's anti freckle cream, an American made woman's compact, and buttons and
zipper from a flight jacket. TIGHAR theorizes that Earhart made a water landing
and she and her copilot survived on the remote island for a time, before
succumbing to starvation. They plan to return to the island in 2014 to better
inspect the wreckage found, and perform an archaeological dig on the site in the
hopes of finding remains. [177][178]
Legacy
Earhart was a widely known international celebrity during her lifetime. Her
shyly charismatic appeal, independence, persistence, coolness under pressure,
courage and goal-oriented career along with the circumstances of her
disappearance at a comparatively early age have driven her lasting fame in popular culture. Hundreds of articles and scores
of books have been written about her life which is often cited as a motivational
tale, especially for girls. Earhart is generally regarded as a feminist
icon.[179]
Earhart's accomplishments in aviation inspired a generation of female
aviators, including the more than 1,000 women pilots of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) who ferried
military aircraft, towed gliders, flew target practice aircraft, and served as
transport pilots during World War II.[180][181]
The home where Earhart was born is now the Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum and is
maintained by The Ninety-Nines, an international group of female pilots of whom
Earhart was the first elected president.[182]
A small section of Earhart's Lockheed Electra starboard engine nacelle
recovered in the aftermath of the Hawaii crash has been confirmed as authentic
and is now regarded as a control piece that will help to authenticate possible
future discoveries. The evaluation of the scrap of metal was featured on an
episode of History Detectives on Season 7 in 2009.[183]
Memorial flights
Two notable memorial flights by female aviators subsequently followed
Earhart's original circumnavigational route.
In 2001, another commemorative flight retraced the route undertaken by
Earhart in her August 1928 transcontinental record flight. Dr. Carlene Mendieta
flew an original Avro Avian, the same type that was used in 1928.[65]
In 2013, Amelia Rose Earhart, a pilot and reporter from
Denver Colorado, announced that she would be recreating the 1937 flight during
the Summer of 2014 in a single engine Pilatus PC-12NG.[184]
Other honors
Countless other tributes and memorials have been made in Amelia Earhart's
name, including a 2012 tribute from Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, speaking at a State Department
event celebrating Earhart and the United States’ ties to its Pacific neighbors,
noting: "Earhart ... created a legacy that resonates today for anyone, girls and
boys, who dreams of the stars."[185] The
following list is not considered definitive, but serves also to give significant
examples of tributes and honors.
"Earhart Light" on Howland Island in August 2008
Earhart Tribute at Portal of the Folded Wing; note error in birth
date.
Earhart
Amelia Earhart
Amelia Earhart, c. 1935
Born
(1897-07-24)July 24, 1897
Atchison, Kansas, U.S.
Disappeared
July 2, 1937 (aged 39)
Pacific Ocean, en route to Howland Island
Status
Declared dead in absentia
January 5,
1939(1939-01-05) (aged 41)
Nationality
American
Known for
Many early aviation records, including first woman to fly solo across the
Atlantic Ocean.
Spouse(s)
George P. Putnam
Signature
Amelia Mary Earhart (/ˈɛərhɑrt/; July 24, 1897 – disappeared July
2, 1937) was an American aviation pioneer and author.[1][N 1] Earhart was
the first female aviator to fly solo across the Atlantic
Ocean.[3][N 2] She
received the U.S. Distinguished Flying Cross for this record.[5] She set many
other records,[2] wrote
best-selling books about her flying experiences and was instrumental in the
formation of The Ninety-Nines, an organization for female
pilots.[6] Earhart
joined the faculty of the Purdue University aviation department in 1935 as
a visiting faculty member to counsel women on careers and help inspire others
with her love for aviation. She was also a member of the National
Woman's Party, and an early supporter of the Equal
Rights Amendment.[7][8]
During an attempt to make a circumnavigational flight of the globe in 1937 in
a Purdue-funded Lockheed Model 10 Electra, Earhart disappeared over the central Pacific Ocean near
Howland Island. Fascination with her life, career
and disappearance continues to this day.[N 3]
Contents [show]
- 1 Early
life
- 2 Aviation
career and marriage
- 3 1932
transatlantic solo flight
- 4 Move
to California - 5 1937
world flight
- 6 Theories
on Earhart's disappearance
- 7 Legacy
- 8 Popular culture
- 9 Records and achievements
- 10 Books
by Earhart - 11 See
also - 12 References
- 13 Further reading
- 14 External
links
Early life
Childhood
Amelia Earhart as a child
Amelia Mary Earhart, daughter of German American Samuel "Edwin" Stanton Earhart
(1867-1930) [10] and Amelia
"Amy" Otis Earhart (1869–1962),[11] was born in
Atchison, Kansas, in the home
of her maternal grandfather, Alfred Gideon Otis (1827–1912), a
former federal judge, president of the Atchison Savings
Bank and a leading citizen in the town. Amelia was the second child of the
marriage, after an infant stillborn in August 1896.[12] Alfred Otis
had not initially favored the marriage and was not satisfied with Edwin's
progress as a lawyer.[13]
Earhart was named, according to family custom, after her two grandmothers
(Amelia Josephine Harres and Mary Wells Patton).[12] From an
early age Earhart, nicknamed "Meeley" (sometimes "Millie") was the ringleader
while her younger sister (two years her junior), Grace Muriel Earhart
(1899–1998), nicknamed "Pidge", acted the dutiful follower.[14] Both girls
continued to answer to their childhood nicknames well into adulthood.[12] Their
upbringing was unconventional since Amy Earhart did not believe in molding her
children into "nice little girls."[15]
Meanwhile their maternal grandmother disapproved of the "bloomers" worn by Amy's children and although
Earhart liked the freedom they provided, she was aware other girls in the
neighborhood did not wear them.
Early influence
A spirit of adventure seemed to abide in the Earhart children with the pair
setting off daily to explore their neighborhood.[N
4] As a child, Earhart spent long hours
playing with Pidge, climbing trees, hunting rats with a rifle and
"belly-slamming" her sled downhill. Although this love of the outdoors and
"rough-and-tumble" play was common to many youngsters, some biographers have
characterized the young Earhart as a tomboy.[17]
The girls kept "worms, moths, katydids and a tree toad"[18] in a growing
collection gathered in their outings. In 1904, with the help of her uncle, she
cobbled together a home-made ramp fashioned after a roller coaster she had seen
on a trip to St. Louis and secured the ramp to the roof of the
family toolshed. Earhart's well-documented first flight ended dramatically. She
emerged from the broken wooden box that had served as a sled with a bruised lip,
torn dress and a "sensation of exhilaration." She exclaimed, "Oh, Pidge, it's
just like flying!"[13]
Although there had been some missteps in his career up to that point, in 1907
Edwin Earhart's job as a claims officer for the Rock
Island Railroad led to a transfer to Des Moines, Iowa. The next year, at the age of
10,[19] Earhart saw
her first aircraft at the Iowa State Fair in Des Moines.[20][21] Her father
tried to interest her and her sister in taking a flight. One look at the rickety
"flivver" was enough for Earhart, who promptly asked if they could go back to
the merry-go-round.[22] She later
described the biplane as "a thing of rusty wire and wood and not at all
interesting."[23]
Education
The two sisters, Amelia and Muriel (she went by her middle name from her
teens on), remained with their grandparents in Atchison, while their parents
moved into new, smaller quarters in Des Moines. During this period, Earhart
received a form of home-schooling together with her sister, from her mother and
a governess. She later recounted that she was "exceedingly fond of reading"[24] and spent
countless hours in the large family library. In 1909, when the family was
finally reunited in Des Moines, the Earhart children were enrolled in public
school for the first time with Amelia Earhart entering the seventh grade at the
age of 12 years.
Family fortunes
While the family's finances seemingly improved with the acquisition of a new
house and even the hiring of two servants, it soon became apparent Edwin was an
alcoholic. Five years later (in 1914), he was forced to retire and although he
attempted to rehabilitate himself through treatment, he was never reinstated at
the Rock Island Railroad. At about this time, Earhart's grandmother Amelia Otis
died suddenly, leaving a substantial estate that placed her daughter's share in
trust, fearing that Edwin's drinking would drain the funds. The Otis house, and
all of its contents, was auctioned; Earhart was heartbroken and later described
it as the end of her childhood.[25]
In 1915, after a long search, Earhart's father found work as a clerk at the
Great Northern Railway in St. Paul, Minnesota,
where Earhart entered Central High School as a junior. Edwin applied
for a transfer to Springfield, Missouri, in 1915 but the current
claims officer reconsidered his retirement and demanded his job back, leaving
the elder Earhart with nowhere to go. Facing another calamitous move, Amy
Earhart took her children to Chicago where they lived with friends. Earhart made
an unusual condition in the choice of her next schooling; she canvassed nearby
high schools in Chicago to find the best science program. She rejected the high
school nearest her home when she complained that the chemistry lab was "just
like a kitchen sink."[26] She
eventually was enrolled in Hyde
Park High School but spent a miserable semester where a yearbook
caption captured the essence of her unhappiness, "A.E. – the girl in brown who
walks alone."[27]
Earhart graduated from Hyde Park High School in 1916.[28] Throughout
her troubled childhood, she had continued to aspire to a future career; she kept
a scrapbook of newspaper clippings about successful women in predominantly
male-oriented fields, including film direction and production, law, advertising,
management and mechanical engineering.[19] She began
junior college at Ogontz School in Rydal, Pennsylvania but did not complete her
program.[29][N 5]
During Christmas vacation in 1917, Earhart visited her sister in Toronto. World War I had been raging and Earhart saw the
returning wounded soldiers. After receiving training as a nurse's aide from the Red
Cross, she began work with the Volunteer
Aid Detachment at Spadina Military Hospital. Her duties included
preparing food in the kitchen for patients with special diets and handing out
prescribed medication in the hospital's dispensary.[30][31]
1918 Spanish flu
pandemic
When the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic reached Toronto, Earhart was
engaged in arduous nursing duties including night shifts at the Spadina Military
Hospital.[32][33] She became a
patient herself, suffering from pneumonia and maxillary sinusitis.[32] She was
hospitalized in early November 1918 owing to pneumonia and discharged in
December 1918, about two months after the illness had started.[32] Her sinus-related symptoms were pain and pressure
around one eye and copious mucus drainage via the nostrils and throat.[34] In the
hospital, in the pre-antibiotic era, she had painful minor operations to wash
out the affected maxillary sinus,[32][33][34] but these
procedures were not successful and Earhart subsequently suffered from worsening
headache attacks. Her convalescence lasted nearly a year, which she spent at her
sister's home in Northampton, Massachusetts.[33] She passed
the time by reading poetry, learning to play the banjo and studying
mechanics.[32] Chronic
sinusitis was to significantly affect Earhart's flying and activities in later
life,[34] and
sometimes even on the airfield she was forced to wear a bandage on her cheek to
cover a small drainage tube.[35]
Early flying
experiences
At about that time, with a young woman friend, Earhart visited an air fair
held in conjunction with the Canadian National Exposition in Toronto. One of
the highlights of the day was a flying exhibition put on by a World War I ace.[36]
The pilot overhead spotted Earhart and her friend, who were watching from an
isolated clearing, and dived at them. "I am sure he said to himself, 'Watch me
make them scamper,'" she said. Earhart stood her ground as the aircraft came
close. "I did not understand it at the time," she said, "but I believe that
little red airplane said something to me as it swished by."[37]
By 1919 Earhart prepared to enter Smith College but changed her mind and enrolled
at Columbia University, enrolling in a course in
medical studies among other programs.[38]
She quit a year later to be with her parents, who had reunited in
California.
L–R: Neta
Snook and Amelia Earhart in front of Earhart's Kinner Airster, c. 1921
In Long Beach, on December 28, 1920, Earhart and her
father visited an airfield where Frank Hawks (who later gained fame as an air racer) gave her a ride that would forever
change Earhart's life. "By the time I had got two or three hundred feet off the
ground," she said, "I knew I had to fly."[39] After that
10-minute flight (that cost her father $10), she immediately became determined
to learn to fly. Working at a variety of jobs, including photographer, truck
driver, and stenographer at the local telephone company, she
managed to save $1,000 for flying lessons. Earhart had her first lessons,
beginning on January 3, 1921, at Kinner Field, near Long Beach. In order to
reach the airfield, Earhart had to take a bus to the end of the line, then walk
four miles (6 km). Earhart's mother also provided part of the $1,000
"stake" against her "better judgement."[40] Her teacher
was Anita
"Neta" Snook, a pioneer female aviator who used a surplus Curtiss JN-4 "Canuck" for training. Earhart
arrived with her father and a singular request, "I want to fly. Will you teach
me?"[41]
Earhart's commitment to flying required her to accept the frequently hard
work and rudimentary conditions that accompanied early aviation training. She
chose a leather jacket, but aware that other aviators would be judging her, she
slept in it for three nights to give the jacket a "worn" look. To complete her
image transformation, she also cropped her hair short in the style of other
female flyers.[42] Six months
later, Earhart purchased a secondhand bright yellow Kinner Airster biplane which she nicknamed "The Canary." On
October 22, 1922, Earhart flew the Airster to an altitude of 14,000 feet
(4,300 m), setting a world record for female pilots. On May 15, 1923,
Earhart became the 16th woman to be issued a pilot's license (#6017)[43] by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI).[44]
Aviation career
and marriage
Amelia Earhart, Los Angeles, 1928
X5665 – 1926 "CIT-9 Safety Plane" – California Institute of Technology (CalTech)
Aerospace model 9 Merrill-type biplane designed by Albert Adams
Merrill (Instructor in Aeronautics); 45hp Kinner engine; wingspan: 24'0".
Boston
Throughout this period, her grandmother's inheritance, which was now
administered by her mother, was constantly depleted until it finally ran out
following a disastrous investment in a failed gypsum mine. Consequently, with no immediate
prospects for recouping her investment in flying, Earhart sold the "Canary" as
well as a second Kinner and bought a yellow Kissel
"Speedster" two-passenger automobile, which she named the "Yellow Peril."
Simultaneously, Earhart experienced an exacerbation of her old sinus problem as
her pain worsened and in early 1924, she was hospitalized for another sinus
operation, which was again unsuccessful. After trying her hand at a number of
unusual ventures including setting up a photography company, Earhart set out in
a new direction.[45] Following
her parents' divorce in 1924, she drove her mother in the "Yellow Peril" on a
transcontinental trip from California with stops throughout the West and even a
jaunt up to Calgary, Alberta. The meandering tour eventually
brought the pair to Boston, Massachusetts, where Earhart underwent another
sinus procedure, this operation being more successful. After recuperation, she
returned for several months to Columbia University but was forced to abandon her
studies and any further plans for enrolling at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology because her
mother could no longer afford the tuition fees and associated costs. Soon after,
she found employment first as a teacher, then as a social worker in 1925 at Denison House, living in
Medford, Massachusetts.[46]
When Earhart lived in Medford, she maintained her interest in aviation,
becoming a member of the American Aeronautical Society's Boston chapter and was
eventually elected its vice president.[47]
She flew out of Dennison Airport (later the Naval
Air Station Squantum) in Quincy, Massachusetts, and helped finance its
operation by investing a small sum of money.[48]
Earhart also flew the first official flight out of Dennison Airport in 1927.[49] As well as
acting as a sales representative for Kinner aircraft in the Boston area, Earhart
wrote local newspaper
columns promoting flying and as her local celebrity grew, she
laid out the plans for an organization devoted to female flyers.[50]
1928 transatlantic
flight
Amelia Earhart being greeted by Mrs. Foster Welch, Mayor of Southampton, June 20, 1928
After Charles Lindbergh's solo flight across the Atlantic in 1927, Amy Phipps Guest, (1873–1959),
expressed interest in being the first woman to fly (or be flown) across the
Atlantic Ocean. After deciding the trip was too perilous for her to undertake,
she offered to sponsor the project, suggesting they find "another girl with the
right image." While at work one afternoon in April 1928, Earhart got a phone
call from Capt. Hilton H. Railey, who asked her, "Would you like to fly the
Atlantic?"
The project coordinators (including book publisher and publicist George P. Putnam) interviewed Earhart and asked
her to accompany pilot Wilmer Stultz and copilot/mechanic Louis Gordon
on the flight, nominally as a passenger, but with the added duty of keeping the
flight log. The team departed Trepassey Harbor, Newfoundland
in a Fokker
F.VIIb/3m on June 17, 1928, landing at Burry
Port (near Llanelli), Wales, United Kingdom, exactly 20
hours and 40 minutes later.[51] Since most
of the flight was on "instruments" and Earhart had no training for this type of
flying, she did not pilot the aircraft. When interviewed after landing, she
said, "Stultz did all the flying—had to. I was just baggage, like a sack of
potatoes." She added, "...maybe someday I'll try it alone."[52]
While in England, Earhart is reported as receiving a rousing welcome on June
19, 1928, when landing at Woolston in Southampton, England.[53]
She flew the Avro Avian 594 Avian III, SN: R3/AV/101 owned by
Lady Mary Heath and later purchased the aircraft
and had it shipped back to the United States (where it was assigned "unlicensed
aircraft identification mark" 7083).[54]
When the Stultz, Gordon and Earhart flight crew returned to the United
States, they were greeted with a ticker-tape parade in New York followed by a
reception with President Calvin Coolidge at the White
House.
Celebrity image
Earhart walking with President Hoover in the grounds of the White
House on January 2, 1932
Trading on her physical resemblance to Lindbergh,[55] whom the
press had dubbed "Lucky Lindy," some newspapers and magazines began referring to
Earhart as "Lady Lindy."[56][N 6] The United
Press was more grandiloquent; to them, Earhart was the reigning
"Queen of the Air."[57] Immediately
after her return to the United States, she undertook an exhausting lecture tour
(1928–1929). Meanwhile, Putnam had undertaken to heavily promote her in a
campaign including publishing a book she authored, a series of new lecture tours
and using pictures of her in mass market endorsements for products including
luggage, Lucky Strike cigarettes (this caused image
problems for her, with McCall's magazine retracting an offer)[58] and women's
clothing and sportswear. The money that she made with "Lucky Strike" had been
earmarked for a $1,500 donation to Commander Richard Byrd's imminent South Pole
expedition.[58]
The marketing campaign by both Earhart and Putnam was successful in
establishing the Earhart mystique in the public psyche.[59] Rather than
simply endorsing the products, Earhart actively became involved in the
promotions, especially in women's fashions. For a number of years she had sewn
her own clothes, but the "active living" lines that were sold in 50 stores such
as Macy's in metropolitan areas were an expression
of a new Earhart image. Her concept of simple, natural lines matched with
wrinkle-proof, washable materials was the embodiment of a sleek, purposeful but
feminine "A.E." (the familiar name she went by with family and friends).[57][60] The luggage
line that she promoted (marketed as Modernaire Earhart Luggage) also bore her
unmistakable stamp.
A wide range of promotional items would appear bearing the Earhart name.
Promoting
aviation
Studio portrait of Amelia Earhart, c. 1932. Putnam specifically instructed
Earhart to disguise a "gap-toothed" smile by keeping her mouth closed in
formal photographs.
The celebrity endorsements would help Earhart finance her flying.[61] Accepting a
position as associate editor at Cosmopolitan magazine, she turned this
forum into an opportunity to campaign for greater public acceptance of aviation,
especially focusing on the role of women entering the field.[62] In 1929,
Earhart was among the first aviators to promote commercial air travel through
the development of a passenger airline service; along with Charles Lindbergh,
she represented Transcontinental Air Transport (TAT) and invested
time and money in setting up the first regional shuttle service between New York
and Washington, DC. (TAT later became TWA). She was a Vice President of National
Airways, which conducted the flying operations of the Boston-Maine Airways and
several other airlines in the northeast.[63] By 1940, it
had become Northeast Airlines.
Competitive
flying
Although Earhart had gained fame for her transatlantic flight, she endeavored
to set an "untarnished" record of her own.[64]
Shortly after her return, piloting Avian 7083, she set off on her first
long solo flight which occurred just as her name was coming into the national
spotlight. By making the trip in August 1928, Earhart became the first woman to
fly solo across the North American continent and back.[65] Gradually
her piloting skills and professionalism grew, as acknowledged by experienced
professional pilots who flew with her. General Leigh Wade flew with Earhart in
1929: "She was a born flier, with a delicate touch on the stick."[66]
Earhart subsequently made her first attempt at competitive air racing in 1929
during the first Santa Monica-to-Cleveland Women's Air Derby (later nicknamed the "Powder Puff Derby" by Will
Rogers). During the race, at the last intermediate stop before
the finish in Cleveland, Earhart and her friend Ruth
Nichols were tied for first place. Nichols was to take off right
before Earhart, but her aircraft hit a tractor at the end of the runway and
flipped over. Instead of taking off, Earhart ran to the wrecked aircraft and
dragged her friend out. Only when she was sure that Nichols was uninjured did
Earhart take off for Cleveland but due to the time lost, she finished third. Her
courageous act was symbolic of Earhart's selflessness; typically, she rarely
referred to the incident in later years.[67]
In 1930, Earhart became an official of the National Aeronautic Association where she
actively promoted the establishment of separate women's records and was
instrumental in the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI)
accepting a similar international standard.[62] In 1931,
flying a Pitcairn PCA-2 autogyro, she set a world altitude record of
18,415 feet (5,613 m) in a borrowed company machine.[68]
While to a reader today it might seem that Earhart was engaged in flying
"stunts," she was, with other female flyers, crucial to making the American
public "air minded" and convincing them that "aviation was no longer just for
daredevils and supermen."[69]
During this period, Earhart became involved with The Ninety-Nines, an organization of female pilots
providing moral support and advancing the cause of women in aviation. She had
called a meeting of female pilots in 1929 following the Women's Air Derby. She
suggested the name based on the number of the charter members; she later became
the organization's first president in 1930.[6] Earhart was a
vigorous advocate for female pilots and when the 1934 Bendix Trophy Race banned women, she openly
refused to fly screen actress Mary Pickford to Cleveland to open the races.[70]
Marriage
For a while Earhart was engaged to Samuel Chapman, a chemical engineer from
Boston, breaking off her engagement on November 23, 1928.[71] During the
same period, Earhart and Putnam had spent a great deal of time together, leading
to intimacy. George P. Putnam, who was known as GP, was
divorced in 1929 and sought out Earhart, proposing to her six times before she
finally agreed.[N 7] After
substantial hesitation on her part, they married on February 7, 1931, in
Putnam's mother's house in Noank, Connecticut. Earhart referred to her marriage
as a "partnership" with "dual control." In a letter written to Putnam and hand
delivered to him on the day of the wedding, she wrote, "I want you to understand
I shall not hold you to any midaevil [sic] code of faithfulness to me nor shall I
consider myself bound to you similarly."[N 8][74][75]
Earhart's ideas on marriage were liberal for the time as she believed in
equal responsibilities for both "breadwinners" and pointedly kept her own name
rather than being referred to as Mrs. Putnam. When The New York Times,
per the rules of its stylebook, insisted on referring to her as Mrs. Putnam, she
laughed it off. GP also learned quite soon that he would be called "Mr.
Earhart."[76] There was no
honeymoon for the newlyweds as Earhart was involved in a nine-day cross-country
tour promoting autogyros and the tour sponsor, Beech-Nut chewing gum. Although Earhart and
Putnam had no children, he had two sons by his previous marriage to Dorothy
Binney (1888–1982),[77] a chemical
heiress whose father's company, Binney & Smith, invented Crayola crayons:[78]
the explorer and writer David Binney Putnam (1913–1992) and George Palmer
Putnam, Jr. (born 1921).[79] Earhart was
especially fond of David who frequently visited his father at their family home
in Rye, New York. George had contracted polio
shortly after his parents' separation and was unable to visit as often.
1932
transatlantic solo flight
Amelia Earhart Museum, Derry
Lockheed Vega 5B flown by Amelia Earhart as seen
on display at the National Air and Space Museum
Monument in Harbour Grace, Newfoundland and
Labrador
At the age of 34, on the morning of May 20, 1932, Earhart set off from Harbour Grace, Newfoundland
with the latest copy of a local newspaper (the dated copy was intended to
confirm the date of the flight). She intended to fly to Paris in her single
engine Lockheed Vega 5B to emulate Charles Lindbergh's solo flight.[80][N 9] Her
technical advisor for the flight was famed Norwegian American aviator Bernt
Balchen who helped prepare her aircraft. He also played the role
of "decoy" for the press as he was ostensibly preparing Earhart's Vega for his
own Arctic flight.[N 10] After a
flight lasting 14 hours, 56 minutes during which she contended with strong
northerly winds, icy conditions and mechanical problems, Earhart landed in a
pasture at Culmore, north of Derry, Northern Ireland. The landing was witnessed by
Cecil King and T. Sawyer. When a farm hand asked, "Have you flown far?" Earhart
replied, "From America."[83] The site now
is the home of a small museum, the Amelia Earhart Centre.[84]
As the first woman to fly solo nonstop across the Atlantic, Earhart received
the Distinguished Flying Cross from Congress,
the Cross of Knight of the Legion of Honor from the French
Government and the Gold Medal of the National
Geographic Society from President Herbert Hoover. As her fame grew, she developed
friendships with many people in high offices, most notably Eleanor Roosevelt, the First
Lady from 1933 to 1945. Roosevelt shared many of Earhart's
interests and passions, especially women's causes. After flying with Earhart,
Roosevelt obtained a student permit but did not pursue her plans to learn to
fly. The two friends communicated frequently throughout their lives.[N 11] Another
famous flyer, Jacqueline Cochran, considered Earhart's greatest
rival by both media and the public, also became a confidante and friend during
this period.[86]
Other solo
flights
On January 11, 1935, Earhart became the first person to fly solo from Honolulu,
Hawaii to Oakland, California. Although this transoceanic
flight had been attempted by many others, most notably by the unfortunate
participants in the 1927 Dole Air Race which had reversed the route, her
trailblazing[87] flight had
been mainly routine, with no mechanical breakdowns. In her final hours, she even
relaxed and listened to "the broadcast of the Metropolitan Opera from New
York."[87]
Earhart and "old Bessie" Vega 5b c. 1935
That year, once more flying her faithful Vega which Earhart had tagged "old
Bessie, the fire horse,"[N 12] she soloed
from Los Angeles to Mexico City on April 19. The next record attempt was a
nonstop flight from Mexico City to New York. Setting off on May 8, her flight
was uneventful although the large crowds that greeted her at Newark, New Jersey, were a concern[89] as she had
to be careful not to taxi into the throng.
Earhart again participated in long-distance air racing, placing fifth in the
1935 Bendix Trophy Race, the best result she could
manage considering that her stock Lockheed Vega topping out at 195 mph
(314 km/h) was outclassed by purpose-built air racers which reached more
than 300 mph (480 km/h).[90]
The race had been a particularly difficult one as one competitor, Cecil Allen,
died in a fiery takeoff mishap and rival Jacqueline Cochran was forced to retire
due to mechanical problems, the "blinding fog",[91] and violent
thunderstorms that plagued the race.
Between 1930 and 1935, Earhart had set seven women's speed and distance
aviation records in a variety of aircraft including the Kinner Airster, Lockheed
Vega, and Pitcairn Autogiro. By 1935, recognizing the limitations of her "lovely
red Vega" in long, transoceanic flights, Earhart contemplated, in her own words,
a new "prize... one flight which I most wanted to attempt – a circumnavigation
of the globe as near its waistline as could be."[92]
For the new venture, she would need a new aircraft.
Move to
California
While Earhart was away on a speaking tour in late November 1934, a fire broke
out at the Putnam residence in Rye destroying many family treasures and
Earhart's personal mementos.[93] As Putnam
had already sold his interest in the New York based publishing company to his
cousin, Palmer, following the fire the couple decided to
move to the West Coast where Putnam took up his new position as head of the
editorial board of Paramount Pictures in North Hollywood.[94][N 13] While
speaking in California in late 1934, Earhart had contacted Hollywood "stunt"
pilot Paul
Mantz in order to improve her flying, focusing especially on
long-distance flying in her Vega and wanted to move closer to him.
At Earhart's urging, Putnam purchased a small house in June 1935 adjacent to
the clubhouse of the Lakeside Golf Club in Toluca
Lake, a San Fernando Valley celebrity enclave community
nestled between the Warner Brothers and Universal Pictures studio complexes where they
had earlier rented a temporary residence.[95][96] Earhart and
Putnam would not move in immediately, however, as they decided to very
considerably remodel and enlarge the existing small structure to meet their
needs, thus delaying their occupation of their new home for some months.[97]
In September 1935, Earhart and Mantz formally established a business
partnership they had been considering since late 1934 by creating the
short-lived Earhart-Mantz Flying School which Mantz controlled and operated
through his aviation company, United Air Services, located at the Burbank Airport about five miles from Earhart's
Toluca Lake home. Putnam handled publicity for the school which primarily taught
instrument flying using Link Trainers.[98]
1937 world
flight
Amelia Earhart and Lockheed Electra 10E NR 16020, c.
1937
Amelia Earhart's Lockheed Electra 10E. During its modification,
the aircraft had most of the cabin windows blanked out and had specially fitted
fuselage fuel tanks.
Planning
Earhart joined the faculty of Purdue University in 1935 as a visiting faculty
member to counsel women on careers and as a technical advisor to the Department
of Aeronautics.[91][N 14] Early in
1936, Earhart started to plan a round-the-world flight. Not the first to circle
the globe, it would be the longest at 29,000 miles (47,000 km), following a
grueling equatorial route. With financing from Purdue,[N
15] in July 1936, a Lockheed
Electra 10E was built at Lockheed Aircraft Company to her specifications
which included extensive modifications to the fuselage to incorporate a large
fuel tank.[100] Earhart
dubbed the twin engine monoplane airliner her "flying laboratory" and hangared
it at Mantz's United Air Services located just across the airfield from
Lockheed's Burbank, California plant in which it had been
built.[101]
Although the Electra was publicized as a "flying laboratory", little useful
science was planned and the flight was arranged around Earhart's intention to
circumnavigate the globe along with gathering raw material and public attention
for her next book.[102] Her first
choice as navigator was Captain Harry Manning, who had been the captain of the
President Roosevelt, the ship that had
brought Earhart back from Europe in 1928.[99]
Through contacts in the Los Angeles aviation community, Fred
Noonan was subsequently chosen as a second navigator because there were significant
additional factors which had to be dealt with while using celestial navigation
for aircraft.[103][104] He had vast
experience in both marine (he was a licensed ship's captain) and flight navigation. Noonan had recently left Pan Am, where he established most of the
company's China Clipper seaplane routes across the Pacific.
Noonan had also been responsible for training Pan American's navigators for the
route between San Francisco and Manila.[105][N 16] The
original plans were for Noonan to navigate from Hawaii to Howland Island, a
particularly difficult portion of the flight; then Manning would continue with
Earhart to Australia and she would proceed on her own for the remainder of the
project.
First attempt
L–R, Paul
Mantz, Amelia Earhart, Harry Manning and Fred
Noonan, Oakland, California, March 17,
1937
On St. Patrick's Day, March 17, 1937, Earhart and
her crew flew the first leg from Oakland, California to Honolulu, Hawaii. In addition to Earhart and
Noonan, Harry Manning and Mantz (who was acting as Earhart's technical advisor)
were on board. Due to lubrication and galling problems with the propeller hubs'
variable pitch mechanisms, the aircraft needed servicing in Hawaii. Ultimately,
the Electra ended up at the United States Navy's Luke Field on Ford
Island in Pearl Harbor. The flight resumed three days later
from Luke Field with Earhart, Noonan and Manning on board. During the takeoff
run, Earhart ground-looped, circumstances of which remain
controversial. Some witnesses at Luke Field including the Associated Press
journalist on the scene said they saw a tire blow.[106] Earhart
thought either the Electra's right tire had blown and/or the right landing gear
had collapsed. Some sources, including Mantz, cited pilot error.[106]
With the aircraft severely damaged, the flight was called off and the
aircraft was shipped by sea to the Lockheed Burbank facility for repairs.[107]
Second attempt
The planned flight route.
While the Electra was being repaired Earhart and Putnam secured additional
funds and prepared for a second attempt. This time flying west to east, the
second attempt began with an unpublicized flight from Oakland to Miami, Florida, and after arriving there Earhart
publicly announced her plans to circumnavigate the globe. The flight's opposite
direction was partly the result of changes in global wind and weather patterns
along the planned route since the earlier attempt. On this second flight, Fred
Noonan was Earhart's only crew member. The pair departed Miami on June 1 and
after numerous stops in South America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, arrived
at Lae,
New Guinea, on June 29, 1937. At this stage about
22,000 miles (35,000 km) of the journey had been completed. The remaining
7,000 miles (11,000 km) would be over the Pacific.
Earhart's 1937 Flight Route
[show]Date
Departure City[108]
Arrival City
Nautical
miles
Notes[109]
May 20, 1937
Oakland,
California
Burbank,
California
283
May 21, 1937
Burbank, California
Tucson,
Arizona
393
May 22, 1937
Tucson, Arizona
New
Orleans, Louisiana
1070
May 23, 1937
New Orleans, Louisiana
Miami,
Florida
586
June 1, 1937
Miami, Florida
San
Juan, Puerto Rico
908
June 2, 1937
San Juan, Puerto Rico
Caripito,
Venezuela
492
out of Luis
Muñoz Marín International Airport
June 3, 1937
Caripito, Venezuela
Paramaribo,
Surinam
610
June 4, 1937
Paramaribo, Surinam
Fortaleza,
Brazil
1142
June 5, 1937
Fortaleza, Brazil
Natal,
Brazil
235
June 7, 1937
Natal, Brazil
Saint-Louis,
Senegal
1727
Transatlantic
flight
June 8, 1937
Saint-Louis, Senegal
Dakar,
Senegal
100
June 10, 1937
Dakar, Senegal
Gao, French Sudan
1016
June 11, 1937
Gao, French Sudan
Fort-Lamy,
F.E.
Africa
910
June 12, 1937
Fort-Lamy, F.E. Africa
El
Fasher, Sudan
610
June 13, 1937
El Fasher, Sudan
Khartoum,
Sudan
437
June 13, 1937
Khartoum, Sudan
Massawa,
Ethiopia
400
June 14, 1937
Massawa, Ethiopia
Assab, Italian
Eritria
241
June 15, 1937
Assab, Italian Eritria
Karachi,
India
1627
first ever non-stop flight from the Red Sea to India
June 17, 1937
Karachi, India
Calcutta,
India
1178
June 18, 1937
Calcutta, India
Akyab,
Burma
291
June 19, 1937
Akyab, Burma
Rangoon,
Burma
268
June 20, 1937
Rangoon, Burma
Bangkok,
Siam
315
June 20, 1937
Bangkok, Siam
Singapore, Straits
Settlements
780
June 21, 1937
Singapore, Straits Settlements
Bandoeng,
Dutch East Indies
541
June 25, 1937
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies
Surabaya,
Dutch East Indies
310
delayed due to monsoon
June 25, 1937
Surabaya, Dutch East Indies
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies
310
returned for repairs, Earhart ill with dysentery
June 26, 1937
Bandoeng, Dutch East Indies
Surabaya, Dutch East Indies
310
June 27, 1937
Surabaya, Dutch East Indies
Koepang,
Dutch East Indies
668
June 28, 1937
Koepang, Dutch East Indies
Darwin,
Australia
445
direction finder repaired, parachutes removed and sent home
June 29, 1937
Darwin, Australia
Lae,
Papua New Guinea
1012
July 2, 1937
Lae, Papua New Guinea
Howland Island
2556
did not arrive
July 3, 1937
Howland Island
Honolulu,
Oahu
1900
planned leg
July 4, 1937
Honolulu, Oahu
Oakland, California
2400
planned leg
Departure from
Lae
On July 2, 1937, midnight GMT, Earhart and Noonan took off from Lae in the
heavily loaded Electra. Their intended destination was Howland Island, a flat sliver of land
6,500 ft (2,000 m) long and 1,600 ft (500 m) wide, 10 ft (3 m)
high and 2,556 miles (4,113 km) away. Their last known position report was
near the Nukumanu Islands, about 800 miles (1,300 km)
into the flight. The USCGC Itasca was on station at Howland,
assigned to communicate with Earhart's Lockheed Electra 10E and guide them to
the island once they arrived in the vicinity.
Final
approach to Howland Island
Through a series of misunderstandings or errors (the details of which are
still controversial), the final approach to Howland Island using radio navigation was not successful. Fred Noonan
had earlier written about problems affecting the accuracy of radio direction
finding in navigation.[N 17] Some
sources have noted Earhart's apparent lack of understanding of her Bendix
direction-finding loop antenna, which at the time was very new technology.
Another cited cause of possible confusion was that the Itasca and Earhart
planned their communication schedule using time systems set a half hour apart
(with Earhart using Greenwich Civil Time (GCT) and the Itasca under a
Naval time zone designation system).[110]
Motion picture evidence from Lae suggests that an antenna mounted underneath the fuselage may have
been torn off from the fuel-heavy Electra during taxi or takeoff from Lae's turf
runway, though no antenna was reported found at Lae. Don Dwiggins, in his
biography of Paul Mantz (who assisted Earhart and Noonan in their flight
planning), noted that the aviators had cut off their long-wire antenna, due to
the annoyance of having to crank it back into the aircraft after each use.
Radio signals
Earhart in the Electra cockpit, c. 1936
During Earhart and Noonan's approach to Howland Island the Itasca
received strong and clear voice transmissions from Earhart identifying as KHAQQ
but she apparently was unable to hear voice transmissions from the ship. At
7:42 am on July 2, Earhart radioed "We must be on you, but cannot see
you—but gas is running low. Have been unable to reach you by radio. We are
flying at 1,000 feet." Her 7:58 am transmission said she couldn't hear the
Itasca and asked them to send voice signals so she could try to take a
radio bearing (this transmission was reported by the Itasca as the
loudest possible signal, indicating Earhart and Noonan were in the immediate
area). They couldn't send voice at the frequency she asked for, so Morse code
signals were sent instead. Earhart acknowledged receiving these but said she was
unable to determine their direction.[111]
In her last known transmission at 8:43 am Earhart broadcast "We are on
the line 157 337. We will repeat this message. We will repeat this on 6210
kilocycles. Wait." However, a few moments later she was back on the same
frequency (3105 kHz) with a transmission which was logged as a
"questionable": "We are running on line north and south."[112] Earhart's
transmissions seemed to indicate she and Noonan believed they had reached
Howland's charted position, which was incorrect by about five nautical miles
(10 km). The Itasca used her oil-fired boilers to generate smoke for
a period of time but the fliers apparently did not see it. The many scattered
clouds in the area around Howland Island have also been cited as a problem:
their dark shadows on the ocean surface may have been almost indistinguishable
from the island's subdued and very flat profile.
Whether any post-loss radio signals were received from Earhart and Noonan
remains controversial. If transmissions were received from the Electra, most if
not all were weak and hopelessly garbled. Earhart's voice transmissions to
Howland were on 3105 kHz, a frequency restricted to aviation use in the
United States by the FCC.[N 18] This
frequency was not thought to be fit for broadcasts over great distances. When
Earhart was at cruising altitude and midway between Lae and Howland (over 1,000
miles (1,600 km) from each) neither station heard her scheduled
transmission at 0815 GCT.[114] Moreover,
the 50-watt transmitter used by Earhart was attached to a
less-than-optimum-length V-type antenna.[115][116][N 19]
The last voice transmission received on Howland Island from Earhart indicated
she and Noonan were flying along a line of position (taken from a "sun line"
running on 157–337 degrees) which Noonan would have calculated and drawn on a
chart as passing through Howland.[117][N 20] After all
contact was lost with Howland Island, attempts were made to reach the flyers
with both voice and Morse code transmissions. Operators across the
Pacific and the United States may have heard signals from the downed Electra but
these were unintelligible or weak.[118][N 21]
Some of these reports of transmissions were later determined to be hoaxes but others were deemed authentic. Bearings
taken by Pan American Airways stations suggested signals
originating from several locations, including Gardner Island.[119][120] It was
noted at the time that if these signals were from Earhart and Noonan, they must
have been on land with the aircraft since water would have otherwise shorted out
the Electra's electrical system.[121][N 22][122][N 23] Sporadic
signals were reported for four or five days after the disappearance but none
yielded any understandable information.[123][N 24] The
captain of the USS Colorado later said "There was no doubt many
stations were calling the Earhart plane on the plane's frequency, some by voice
and others by signals. All of these added to the confusion and doubtfulness of
the authenticity of the reports."[124]
Search efforts
Beginning approximately one hour after Earhart's last recorded message, the
USCGC Itasca undertook an ultimately unsuccessful search north and west
of Howland Island based on initial assumptions about transmissions from the
aircraft. The United States Navy soon joined the search and
over a period of about three days sent available resources to the search area in
the vicinity of Howland Island. The initial search by the Itasca involved
running up the 157/337 line of position to the NNW from Howland Island. The
Itasca then searched the area to the immediate NE of the island,
corresponding to the area, yet wider than the area searched to the NW. Based on
bearings of several supposed Earhart radio transmissions, some of the search
efforts were directed to a specific position on a line of 281 degrees
(approximately northwest) from Howland Island without evidence of the
flyers.[125] Four days
after Earhart's last verified radio transmission, on July 6, 1937, the captain
of the battleship Colorado received orders from the Commandant, Fourteenth Naval District to take over all naval
and coast guard units to coordinate search efforts.[125]
AP Photo of Amelia Earhart and Fred Noonan, Los Angeles, May
1937
Later search efforts were directed to the Phoenix Islands south of Howland Island.[126] A week
after the disappearance, naval aircraft from the Colorado flew over
several islands in the group including Gardner Island (now called Nikumaroro), which had been uninhabited for over
40 years. The subsequent report on Gardner read: "Here signs of recent
habitation were clearly visible but repeated circling and zooming failed to
elicit any answering wave from possible inhabitants and it was finally taken for
granted that none were there... At the western end of the island a tramp
steamer (of about 4000 tons)... lay high and almost dry head onto
the coral beach with her back broken in two places. The lagoon at Gardner looked
sufficiently deep and certainly large enough so that a seaplane or even an
airboat could have landed or takenoff [sic] in any direction with little if any
difficulty. Given a chance, it is believed that Miss Earhart could have landed
her aircraft in this lagoon and swum or waded ashore."[N
25] They also found that Gardner's shape and
size as recorded on charts were wholly inaccurate. Other Navy search efforts
were again directed north, west and southwest of Howland Island, based on a
possibility the Electra had ditched in the ocean, was afloat, or that the
aviators were in an emergency raft.[128]
The official search efforts lasted until July 19, 1937.[129] At
$4 million, the air and sea search by the Navy and Coast Guard was the most costly and intensive in
U.S. history up to that time but search and rescue techniques during the era were
rudimentary and some of the search was based on erroneous assumptions and flawed
information. Official reporting of the search effort was influenced by
individuals wary about how their roles in looking for an American hero might be
reported by the press.[130][N 26] Despite an
unprecedented search by the United States Navy and Coast Guard no physical
evidence of Earhart, Noonan or the Electra 10E was found. The aircraft carrier
USS Lexington, the Colorado, and the
Itasca (and even two Japanese ships, the oceanographic survey vessel
Koshu and auxiliary seaplane tender Kamoi) searched for six–seven days each,
covering 150,000 square miles (390,000 km2).[131][132]
Immediately after the end of the official search, Putnam financed a private
search by local authorities of nearby Pacific islands and waters, concentrating
on the Gilberts. In late July 1937, Putnam chartered two small boats and while
he remained in the United States, directed a search of the Phoenix Islands, Christmas (Kiritimati) Island, Fanning
(Tabuaeran) Island, the Gilbert Islands and the Marshall Islands, but no trace of the Electra or its occupants was
found.[133]
Back in the United States, Putnam acted to become the trustee of Earhart's
estate so that he could pay for the searches and related bills. In probate court
in Los Angeles, Putnam requested to have the "declared
death in absentia" seven-year waiting period waived so
that he could manage Earhart's finances. As a result, Earhart was declared
legally dead on January 5, 1939.[134]
Theories on Earhart's
disappearance
Many theories emerged after the disappearance of Earhart and Noonan. Two
possibilities concerning the flyers' fate have prevailed among researchers and
historians.
Crash and sink
theory
Many researchers believe the Electra ran out of fuel and that Earhart and
Noonan ditched at sea. Navigator and aeronautical engineer Elgen
Long and his wife Marie K. Long devoted 35 years of exhaustive
research to the "crash and sink" theory, which is the most widely accepted
explanation for the disappearance.[135]
Capt. Laurance F. Safford, USN, who was responsible for
the interwar Mid Pacific Strategic Direction Finding Net, and the decoding of
the Japanese PURPLE cipher messages for the attack on Pearl
Harbor, began a lengthy analysis of the Earhart flight during the 1970s. His
research included the intricate radio transmission documentation. Safford came
to the conclusion, "poor planning, worse execution."[136] Rear
Admiral Richard R. Black, USN, who was in administrative charge of the Howland
Island airstrip and was present in the radio room on the Itasca, asserted
in 1982 that "the Electra went into the sea about 10 am, July 2, 1937 not
far from Howland".[136] British
aviation historian Roy Nesbit interpreted evidence in contemporary accounts and
Putnam's correspondence and concluded Earhart's Electra was not fully fueled at
Lae.[137] William L.
Polhemous, the navigator on Ann Pellegreno's 1967 flight which followed Earhart
and Noonan's original flight path, studied navigational tables for July 2, 1937
and thought Noonan may have miscalculated the "single line approach" intended to
"hit" Howland.[138]
David Jourdan, a former Navy submariner and ocean engineer specializing in
deep-sea recoveries, has claimed any transmissions attributed to Gardner Island
were false. Through his company Nauticos he extensively searched a
1,200-square-mile (3,100 km2) quadrant north and west of Howland
Island during two deep-sea sonar expeditions (2002 and 2006, total cost
$4.5 million) and found nothing. The search locations were derived from the
line of position (157–337) broadcast by Earhart on July 2, 1937.[110]
Nevertheless, Elgen Long's interpretations have led Jourdan to conclude, "The
analysis of all the data we have – the fuel analysis, the radio calls, other
things – tells me she went into the water off Howland."[110] Earhart's
stepson George Palmer Putnam Jr. has been quoted as saying he believes "the
plane just ran out of gas."[139] Susan
Butler, author of the "definitive"[140]
Earhart biography East to the Dawn, says she thinks the aircraft went
into the ocean out of sight of Howland Island and rests on the seafloor at a
depth of 17,000 feet (5 km).[141]
Tom D. Crouch, Senior Curator of the National Air and Space Museum, has said the
Earhart/Noonan Electra is "18,000 ft. down" and may even yield a range of
artifacts that could rival the finds of the Titanic, adding, "... the mystery is part of
what keeps us interested. In part, we remember her because she's our favorite
missing person."[110]
Gardner Island
hypothesis
Immediately after Earhart and Noonan's disappearance, the U.S. Navy, Paul
Mantz, and Earhart's mother (who convinced G.P. Putnam to undertake a search in
the Phoenix Group)[142] all
expressed belief the flight had ended in the Phoenix Islands, now part of the Republic
of Kiribati, some 350 miles (560 km) southeast of Howland
Island. Ultimately, Gardner Island (now Nikumaroro), larger than Howland and much more
visible from the air, was identified as a viable location for landing an
aircraft running out of fuel.
In 1988, The International Group for Historic Aircraft Recovery (TIGHAR) began an investigation[143] of the
Earhart/Noonan disappearance and since then has sent ten[144] research
expeditions to Gardner Island/Nikumaroro. They have suggested Earhart and Noonan
may have flown without further radio transmissions[145]
for two and a half hours along the line of position Earhart noted in her last
transmission received at Howland, then found then-uninhabited Gardner Island,
landed the Electra on an extensive reef flat near the wreck of a large freighter
(the SS Norwich City) on the northwest
side of the atoll, and ultimately perished.
During World War II, US
Coast Guard LORAN Unit 92, a radio navigation station built
in the summer and fall of 1944, and operational from mid-November 1944 until
mid-May 1945, was located on Gardner Island's southeast end. Dozens of U.S.
Coast Guard personnel were involved in its construction and operation, but were
mostly forbidden from leaving the small base or having contact with the
Gilbertese colonists then on the island, and found no artifacts known to relate
to Earhart.[146]
Nevertheless, in July 2007, an editor at Avionews in Rome compared the Gardner Island
hypothesis to other non-crash-and-sink theories and called it the "most
confirmed" of them.[147]
TIGHAR's research has produced a range of documented archaeological and
anecdotal evidence supporting this hypothesis.[148][149] For
example, in 1940, Gerald Gallagher, a British colonial officer and
licensed pilot, radioed his superiors to inform them that he had found a "skeleton
... possibly that of a woman," along with an old-fashioned sextant box, under a tree on the island's
southeast corner. He was ordered to send the remains to Fiji, where in 1941, British colonial authorities
took detailed measurements of the bones and concluded they were from a male
about 5 ft 5 in tall.[150] In 1998,
however, an analysis of the measurement data by forensic anthropologists did not
confirm the original findings, concluding instead, that the skeleton had
belonged to a "tall white female of northern European ancestry." The bones
themselves were misplaced in Fiji long ago and have not been found.[151]
Artifacts discovered by TIGHAR on Nikumaroro have included improvised tools,
an aluminum panel (possibly from an Electra), an oddly cut piece of clear
Plexiglas the same thickness and curvature of an Electra window and a size 9
Cat's Paw heel dating from the 1930s which resembles Earhart's footwear in world
flight photos.[152][N 27] The
evidence remains circumstantial, but Earhart's surviving stepson, George Putnam
Jr., has expressed support for TIGHAR's research.[153]
In 2007, a TIGHAR expedition visited Nikumaroro searching for unambiguously
identifiable aircraft artifacts and DNA. The group included engineers, technical
experts, archaeologists, anthropologists, and researchers.[154] They found
artifacts of uncertain origin on the weather-ravaged atoll, including bronze
bearings which may have belonged to Earhart's aircraft and a zipper pull which
might have come from her flight suit.[155]
In 2010, the research group said it had found bones that appeared to be part of
a human finger. Subsequent DNA testing at the University
of Oklahoma proved inconclusive as to whether the bone fragments
were from a human or from a sea turtle.[156]
In July 2012, TIGHAR conducted an underwater expedition off the northwest
reef of Nikumaroro, using sonar mapping. Some of the sonar images suggested a
possible wreckage site,[157] although
Ric Gillespie, executive director of TIGHAR, cautioned that most of the
Electra's parts would likely have disintegrated after 75 years in sea water.[158]
Nevertheless, in May 2013, TIGHAR announced that professional analysis of a
32-foot (9.8 m) anomaly in the sonar images showed what could possibly be
the aircraft.[159][160]
Myths, legends
and claims
The unresolved circumstances of Earhart's disappearance, along with her fame,
attracted a great body of other claims relating to her last flight, all of which
have been generally dismissed for lack of verifiable evidence. Several
unsupported theories have become well known in popular culture.
Spies for FDR
A World
War II-era movie called Flight for Freedom (1943) starring Rosalind Russell and Fred
MacMurray furthered a myth that Earhart was spying on the Japanese in the Pacific at the
request of the Franklin Roosevelt administration.[148][N 28] By 1949,
both the United Press and U.S. Army Intelligence had
concluded this rumor was groundless. Jackie Cochran, another pioneering aviator and
one of Earhart's friends, made a postwar search of numerous files in Japan and
was convinced the Japanese were not involved in Earhart's disappearance.[161]
Saipan claims
In 1966, CBS Correspondent Fred Goerner published a book
claiming Earhart and Noonan were captured and executed when their aircraft
crashed on the island of Saipan, part of the Mariana Islands archipelago, while it was under
Japanese occupation.[162][163][N 29][164][N 30] In 2009,
an Earhart relative stated that the pair died in Japanese custody, citing
unnamed witnesses including Japanese troops and Saipan natives.[165] He said
that the Japanese cut the valuable Lockheed aircraft into scrap and threw the
pieces into the ocean.[165]
Thomas E. Devine (who served in a postal Army unit) wrote Eyewitness: The
Amelia Earhart Incident which includes a letter from the daughter of a
Japanese police official who claimed her father was responsible for Earhart's
execution.[citation needed]
Former U.S. Marine Robert Wallack claimed he and other
Marines opened a safe on Saipan and found Earhart's briefcase. Former U.S.
Marine Earskin J. Nabers claimed that while serving as a wireless operator on
Saipan in 1944, he decoded a message from naval officials which said Earhart's
aircraft had been found at the airfield in the village of As Lito, that he
was later ordered to guard the aircraft, and then witnessed its destruction.[citation needed] In 1990, the NBC-TV series Unsolved Mysteries broadcast an interview
with a Saipanese woman who claimed to have witnessed Earhart and Noonan's
execution by Japanese soldiers. No independent confirmation or support has ever
emerged for any of these claims.[166]
Purported photographs of Earhart during her captivity have been identified as
either fraudulent or having been taken before her final flight.[167]
Since the end of World War II, a location on Tinian, which is five miles (eight km) southwest
of Saipan, had been rumoured to be the grave of the two aviators. In 2004, a
scientifically supported archaeological dig at the site failed to turn up any
bones.[168]
Tokyo Rose rumor
A rumor which claimed that Earhart had made propaganda radio broadcasts as
one of the many women compelled to serve as Tokyo Rose was investigated closely by George
Putnam. According to several biographies of Earhart, Putnam investigated this
rumor personally but after listening to many recordings of numerous Tokyo Roses,
he did not recognize her voice among them.[169]
New Britain
The theory that Earhart may have turned back mid-flight has been posited. She
would then have tried to reach the airfield at Rabaul, New Britain (northeast of mainland Papua New Guinea), approximately 2,200 miles
(3,500 km) from Howland.[170]
In 1990, Donald Angwin, a veteran of the Australian Army's World War II campaign
in New Britain, contacted researchers to suggest that a wrecked
aircraft he had witnessed in jungle about 40 miles (64 km) southwest of
Rabaul, on April 17, 1945, may have been Earhart's Electra.[171] Angwin, who
was a corporal in the 11th Battalion at the time,[172] reported
that he and other members of a forward patrol on Japanese-occupied New Britain
had found a wrecked twin-engined, unpainted all-metal aircraft. The soldiers
recorded a rough position on a map, along with serial numbers seen on the
wreckage. While the map was located in the possession of another veteran in
1993, subsequent searches of the area indicated failed to find a wreck.[171]
While Angwin died in 2001, David Billings, an Australian aircraft engineer,
has continued to investigate his theory. Billings claims that the serial numbers
written on the map, "600H/P S3HI C/N1055", represent:
- a 600 hp (450 kW) Pratt
& Whitney R-1340-S3H1 model engine and; - "Constructor's Number 1055", an airframe identifier.
These would be consistent with a Lockheed Electra 10E, such as that flown by
Earhart, although they do not contain enough information to identify the wreck
in question as NR16020.[171]
Pacific Wrecks, a website that documents World War II-era aircraft
crash sites, notes that no Electra has been reported lost in or around Papua New
Guinea. Gillespie wrote that the 2,000-mile (3,200 km) distance from
Earhart's last known position to New Britain was impossible for the aircraft to
fly, requiring more than 13 hours of flight when there was only 4 hours of fuel
remaining.[173]
Assuming another
identity
In November 2006, the National Geographic Channel aired episode two of
the Undiscovered History series about a claim that Earhart survived the
world flight, moved to New Jersey, changed her name, remarried and
became Irene Craigmile Bolam. This claim had originally
been raised in the book Amelia Earhart Lives (1970) by author Joe Klaas,
based on the research of Major Joseph Gervais. Irene Bolam, who had been a
banker in New York during the 1940s, denied being Earhart, filed a lawsuit
requesting $1.5 million in damages and submitted a lengthy affidavit in which she refuted the claims. The
book's publisher, McGraw-Hill, withdrew the book from the market
shortly after it was released and court records indicate that they made an
out-of-court settlement with her.[174][175]
Subsequently, Bolam's personal life history was thoroughly documented by
researchers, eliminating any possibility she was Earhart. Kevin Richlin, a
professional criminal forensic expert hired by National Geographic, studied photographs of
both women and cited many measurable facial differences between Earhart and
Bolam.[176]
Possible Wreckage
Found
In July of 2013, TIGHAR (The International Group for Historic Aircraft
Recovery) detected an anomaly using side scan sonar off the coast of Nikumaroro
island, an uninhabited tropical atoll in the southwestern Pacific republic of
Kiribati which was the target of TIGHAR's underwater search in 2012. Upon
review, it was determined that the anomaly resembles that of a crashed Lockheed
Electra, the type of plane which Earhart was flying. TIGHAR believes that they
have found evidence that the plane crash landed on the shallow reef before being
washed to its current position a few hundred yards off the reef itself. Past
expeditions on the island have turned up some curious artifacts, in particular
1930's anti freckle cream, an American made woman's compact, and buttons and
zipper from a flight jacket. TIGHAR theorizes that Earhart made a water landing
and she and her copilot survived on the remote island for a time, before
succumbing to starvation. They plan to return to the island in 2014 to better
inspect the wreckage found, and perform an archaeological dig on the site in the
hopes of finding remains. [177][178]
Legacy
Earhart was a widely known international celebrity during her lifetime. Her
shyly charismatic appeal, independence, persistence, coolness under pressure,
courage and goal-oriented career along with the circumstances of her
disappearance at a comparatively early age have driven her lasting fame in popular culture. Hundreds of articles and scores
of books have been written about her life which is often cited as a motivational
tale, especially for girls. Earhart is generally regarded as a feminist
icon.[179]
Earhart's accomplishments in aviation inspired a generation of female
aviators, including the more than 1,000 women pilots of the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) who ferried
military aircraft, towed gliders, flew target practice aircraft, and served as
transport pilots during World War II.[180][181]
The home where Earhart was born is now the Amelia Earhart Birthplace Museum and is
maintained by The Ninety-Nines, an international group of female pilots of whom
Earhart was the first elected president.[182]
A small section of Earhart's Lockheed Electra starboard engine nacelle
recovered in the aftermath of the Hawaii crash has been confirmed as authentic
and is now regarded as a control piece that will help to authenticate possible
future discoveries. The evaluation of the scrap of metal was featured on an
episode of History Detectives on Season 7 in 2009.[183]
Memorial flights
Two notable memorial flights by female aviators subsequently followed
Earhart's original circumnavigational route.
- In 1967, Ann Dearing Holtgren Pellegreno and a crew of
three successfully flew a similar aircraft (a Lockheed 10A Electra) to complete
a world flight that closely mirrored Earhart's flight plan. On the 30th
anniversary of her disappearance, Pellegreno dropped a wreath in Earhart's honor
over tiny Howland Island and returned to Oakland, completing the 28,000-mile
(45,000 km) commemorative flight on July 7, 1967. - In 1997, on the 60th anniversary of Earhart's world flight, San Antonio
businesswoman Linda Finch retraced the final flight path flying
the same make and model of aircraft as Earhart, a restored 1935 Lockheed Electra
10E. Finch touched down in 18 countries before finishing the trip two and a half
months later when she arrived back at Oakland Airport on May 28, 1997.
In 2001, another commemorative flight retraced the route undertaken by
Earhart in her August 1928 transcontinental record flight. Dr. Carlene Mendieta
flew an original Avro Avian, the same type that was used in 1928.[65]
In 2013, Amelia Rose Earhart, a pilot and reporter from
Denver Colorado, announced that she would be recreating the 1937 flight during
the Summer of 2014 in a single engine Pilatus PC-12NG.[184]
Other honors
Countless other tributes and memorials have been made in Amelia Earhart's
name, including a 2012 tribute from Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, speaking at a State Department
event celebrating Earhart and the United States’ ties to its Pacific neighbors,
noting: "Earhart ... created a legacy that resonates today for anyone, girls and
boys, who dreams of the stars."[185] The
following list is not considered definitive, but serves also to give significant
examples of tributes and honors.
- Amelia Earhart Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary was established at the
site of her 1932 landing in Northern Ireland, Ballyarnet Country Park,
Derry. - The "Earhart Tree" on Banyan Drive in Hilo, Hawaii, was planted by
Earhart in 1935. - The Zonta International Amelia Earhart Fellowship
Awards were established in 1938.
"Earhart Light" on Howland Island in August 2008
- Earhart Light (also known as the Amelia Earhart Light), a
navigational day beacon on Howland Island (has not been maintained and is
crumbling). - The Amelia Earhart Memorial Scholarships (established in 1939 by The
Ninety-Nines), provides scholarships to women for advanced pilot certificates
and ratings, jet type ratings, college degrees and technical training. - The Purdue University Amelia Earhart Scholarship, first awarded in
1940, is based on academic merit and leadership and is open to juniors and
seniors enrolled in any school at the West Lafayette campus. After being
discontinued in the 1970s, a donor resurrected the award in 1999. - In 1942, a United States Liberty ship named SS Amelia Earhart was launched. It
was wrecked in 1948. - Amelia Earhart Field (1947), formerly Masters Field and Miami Municipal Airport, after closure in 1959,
the Amelia Earhart Regional Park was dedicated in an area of undeveloped
federal government land located north and west of the former Miami Municipal
Airport and immediately south of Opa-locka Airport. - Amelia Earhart Airport (1958),[186]
located in Atchison, Kansas. - Amelia Earhart Commemorative Stamp (8¢ airmail postage) was issued in
1963 by the United States Postmaster-General. - The Civil Air Patrol Amelia Earhart Award
(since 1964) is awarded to cadets who have completed the first 11 achievements
of the cadet program along with receipt of the General Billy Mitchell
Award. - Amelia Earhart Residence Hall opened in 1964 as a residence hall for women at Purdue University and
became coed in 2002. An eight-foot sculpture of Earhart, by Ernest Shelton, was
placed in front of the Earhart Hall Dining Court in 2009.[187] - Member of National Women's Hall of Fame (1973).
- Crittenton Women's Union (Boston) Amelia Earhart Award recognizes a
woman who continues Earhart's pioneering spirit and who has significantly
contributed to the expansion of opportunities for women. (since 1982) - Earhart Corona, a corona on Venus was named by the (IAU) in 1982.[188]
- The Amelia Earhart Birthplace,[189]
Atchison, Kansas (a museum and historic site, owned and maintained by The
Ninety-Nines since 1984). - UCI Irvine Amelia Earhart Award (since 1990).
- Member of Motorsports Hall of Fame of America (1992).
- 3895
Earhart, a minor planet discovered in 1987, was named in 1995
after her, by its discoverer, Carolyn S. Shoemaker. - Earhart Foundation, located in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Established in 1995, the
foundation funds research and scholarship through a network of 50 "Earhart
professors" across the United States. - Amelia Earhart Festival (annual event since 1996), located in
Atchison, Kansas. - Amelia Earhart Pioneering Achievement Award, Atchison, Kansas: Since
1996, the Cloud L. Cray Foundation provides a $10,000 women's scholarship to the
educational institution of the honoree's choice. - Amelia Earhart Earthwork in Warnock Lake Park, Atchison, Kansas. Stan
Herd created the 1-acre (4,000 m2) landscape mural in 1997 from
permanent plantings and stone to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Earhart's
birth. Located at 39°32′15″N 95°08′43″W
/ 39.537621°N 95.145158°W /
39.537621;
-95.145158 and best viewed
from the air. - Amelia Earhart Bridge (1997), located in
Atchison, Kansas. - Greater Miami Aviation Association Amelia Earhart Award for
outstanding achievement (2006); first recipient: noted flyer Patricia "Patty" Wagstaff. - On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold
Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Earhart into the California
Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women and the
Arts. - USNS Amelia Earhart (T-AKE-6) was
named in her honor in May 2007. - Amelia Earhart full size bronze statue was placed at the Spirit
of Flight Center located in Lafayette, Colorado in 2008.
Earhart Tribute at Portal of the Folded Wing; note error in birth
date.
- The Amelia Earhart General Aviation Terminal, a satellite terminal at
Boston's Logan Airport (formerly used by American
Eagle, now unused) - Amelia Earhart Dam on the Mystic River in eastern Massachusetts.
- Schools named after Earhart are found throughout the United States including
the Amelia Earhart Elementary School, in Alameda, California, Amelia Earhart Elementary
School, in Hialeah, Florida, Amelia Earhart Middle
School, Riverside, California and Amelia Earhart
International Baccalaureate World School, in Indio, California. - Amelia Earhart Hotel, located in Wiesbaden, Germany, originally used as a hotel
for women, then as temporary military housing is now operated as the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Europe District
Headquarters with offices for the Army Contracting Agency and the Defense Contract Management Agency. - Amelia Earhart Road, located in Oklahoma
City (headquarters of The Ninety-Nines), Oklahoma. - Earhart Road, located next to the Oakland International Airport North Field in Oakland, California.
- Amelia Earhart Playhouse, at Wiesbaden
Army Airfield.[190] - Tio commemmorate her first transatlantic flight, on the Millennium Coastal
Path at Pwll, Burry Port, South Wales is a blue plaque sponsored by Llanelli
Community Heritage.